A GRAMMAR OF NEW ITHKUIL

A CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE

 

 

Introduction

4  Case Morphology

8  Adjuncts

12  The Writing System

1  Phonology

5  Verb Morphology

9  Referentials

13  Numbers

2  Morpho-Phonology

6  More Verb Morphology

10  Special Constructions

14  The Lexicon

3  Basic Morphology

7  Affixes

11  Syntax

Appendices

 

 

 

7.0    AFFIXES

 

Up to this point, the morpho-phonological Slots of formative have each contained a mandatory affix (although some of these affixes can be elided in certain circumstances).  However, Slots V and VII are different, in that they contain optional affixes which can be agglutinated (i.e., multiple affixes sequentially strung together). 

 

Standard Slot Structure of a Formative

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

(CC

VV )

CR

VR

(CSVX...)

CA

(VXCS...)

(VN CN )

VC / VK

[stress]

Concatenation status indicator

 

Version
+ Stem

Main Root

Function + Specification
+ Context 

VXCS affix(es) apply to stem but not to CA

Form is -CSVX- (i.e., reversed from standard Slot VII VXCS form)

Configuration 
+ Extension
+ Affiliation
+ Perspective
+ Essence

VXCS affixes apply to stem + CA

Valence + Mood/Case-Scope
or  Aspect + Mood/Case-Scope
or  Phase + Mood/Case-Scope
or  Level + Mood/Case-Scope
or  Effect + Mood/Case-Scope

Case or Format or
Illocution + Validation as determined by Slot X syllabic stress

penultimate stress  =  unframed Relation + VC

ultimate stress  =  unframed Relation + VK

antepenultimate stress  =  framed Relation + VC

consonantal form consisting of either a glottal stop or a form beginning with -h-.

vocalic affix

cons. form

vocalic affix

 

consonant + vowel

if Slot V is filled, CA is geminated

vowel + consonant

Modular Slot containing a
vowel-form + consonant-form

vocalic affix

 

The phonological format of Slot V and Slot VII affixes comprises a vocalic increment VX plus a consonantal increment CS to give a format of VXCS.  The consonantal CS component never changes, however the VX vocalic component consists of an array of thirty different vowel-forms, by which the affix creates a complex matrix of different types and degrees, explained and illustrated in the sub-sections below.

 

 

 

degree

Type-1

Type-2

Type-3

 

1

a

ai

ia / uä

 

2

ä

au

ie / uë

 

3

e

ei

io / üä

 

4

i

eu

iö / üë

 

5

ëi

ëu

 

6

ö

ou

uö / öë

 

7

o

oi

uo / öä

 

8

ü

iu

ue / ië

 

9

u

ui

ua / iä

 

0

ae

ea

üo

 

No CS form can contain a glottal-stop or begin with h-, nor can the following specific consonant-forms occur as CS:  -w-, -y-, -ç-, -ļ-, -ļw-, or -ļy-.  Additionally, no geminated consonant can be a CS form.

 

 

7.0.1   Degree 0:  The last row of values in the table above is termed “Degree Zero”, indicating an unspecified degree and refers to the affix’s general semantic concept as a whole.  Note that even though a Degree Zero form technically exists for all affixes, not all affixes will utilize it if the semantics of the particular affix do not make for a coherent interpretation of a Degree Zero value.

 

 

7.0.2   CA stacking:  The specialized -VX value, -üö, is used to indicate that the subsequent -CS consonant-form is to be interpreted as a CA complex having scope over (i.e., stacked upon) the  Slot VI CA complex of the stem (see Sec. 3.6 for an explanation of the CA complex).

 

 

 

7.1  VXCS Affix Degree and Gradient-Type

 

All VXCS affixes have nine different degrees (plus a “degree-less” “zero” form).  The nine degrees are used to create a range or gradient-like spectrum of meanings of seven different types.  For the purposes of grammatical notation, the degree of an affix is shown as a number 0 through 9 with a preceding slash, immediately following the V-marker (with its affix-type shown as a subscript) and the specific CS consonantal form, VXCS/#, e.g., -V2g/7.  The gradient types are explained below.

 

 

·         Gradient Type 0 (Zero):  No gradient pattern.  The nine degrees of the affix do not manifest any particular hierarchical semantic gradient.  Affixes of Gradient Type 0 are either a single sibilant (whether a fricative or affricate), a sibilant + stop, a sibilant + fricative (other than -ç-, -x-, or -h-), or a bi-consonantal form ending in a sibilant, e.g., -s, -č, -sk, -gz, -jd.  An example of a Gradient Type Zero affix is -sp shown below.

 

-sp

NEW     Newness/Revision    

1

new = original + new, i.e., never before seen

2

new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student

3

new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before

4

new/other = replacement + new

5

new/other = additional instance + new

6

new/other = revision + additional

7

new/other = revision + replacement

8

new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition or replacement is unknown or inapplicable

9

new/other/different = different + new; status as addition or replacement is unknown or inapplicable

 

 

·         Gradient Type A1:  A bivalent zero-to-one gradient.  Degree 1 signifies one extreme of a gradient spectrum/range of meaning (whether minimal or maximal) while Degree 9 signifies the other extreme (whether minimal or maximal).  Degrees 2 through 8 cumulatively add (or subtract) an amount of the concept associated with the affix.  Gradient Type A1 affixes consist of a a bi- or tri-consonantal  form beginning with -r or -ř, e.g., -rt, -řn, -rks.  An example of a Gradient Type A1 affix is - shown below.

 

-

FAM   Degree Of Familiarity               

1

unknowable / alien; unable to even try X-ing

2

totally unfamiliar, utterly strange; totally unaccustomed to X-ing

3

unfamiliar, strange; unaccustomed to X-ing

4

somewhat unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing

5

just becoming familiar, just getting to know; just getting used to X-ing

6

somewhat familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing

7

familiar/known; accustomed to X-ing

8

well-known / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing

9

intimate with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to

 

 

 

 

·         Gradient Type A2:  A bivalent “zero-to-one” spectrum-like gradient like Type A1 where Degrees 1 and 9 convey sufficiency connotations of “too little X” and “too much X”.  Gradient Type D affixes consist of or end in -h (except -rh and -řh, which are Type A1).  An example of a Gradient Type A2 affix is -mh shown below.

 

-mh

FLS     Degree of Fluctuation/Stability           

1

too unstable / too random

2

unstable / highly variable/random fluctuation or instability

3

moderately variable/random fluctuation or instability

4

increasing fluctuation or destabilization in pattern

5

tending toward fluctuations and periods of instability

6

decreasing fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability

7

moderately stable and lacking in fluctuations

8

complete lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable, steadfast

9

too stable

 

 

·         Gradient Type B:  A “three-by-three” gradient pattern.  Degrees 1 through 3 signify a spectrum or range involving one sub-parameter, Degrees 4 through 6 signify the same spectrum/range under a different sub-parameter, and Degrees 7 through 9 signify the same spectrum/range under a third sub-parameter.  Gradient Type B affixes consist of at least two consonants and always begin or end with -ç-.  An example of a Gradient Type B affix is -çţ shown below.

 

-çţ

RPN    Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set Members

1

slow-paced repetition at regular intervals

2

slow-paced repetition at irregular intervals

3

slow-paced repetition at mixed intervals

4

mid-paced repetition at irregular intervals

5

mid-paced repetition at regular intervals

6

mid-paced repetition at mixed intervals

7

fast-paced repetition at mixed intervals

8

fast-paced repetition at irregular intervals

9

fast-paced repetition at regular intervals

 

 

 

·         Gradient Type C:  A “one-by-two” or “oscillating” gradient.  Degree 1 represents one extreme of a spectrum/range which increases/decreases to the other extreme of the spectrum/range usually represented by Degree 4, while Degrees 6 through 9 cycle back through the same values but with a different sub-parameter operating orthogonally to Degrees 1 through 4.  Degree 5 usually represents a neutral or meta-level value associated with the semantic concept of the affix.  Gradient Type C affixes consist of or end in -ř.  An example of a Gradient Type C affix is - shown below.

 

-

AGN           Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness  

1

with the anticipated max. resulting effect possible

2

with the anticipated resulting effect to a high degree

3

with the anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree

4

with the anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or barely noticeable degree

5

with no noticeable effect or resulting change

6

with only marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated

7

with moderate effect or resulting change — unanticipated

8

with the resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated

9

with the max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated

 

 

 

·         Gradient Type D1:  A trivalent “-1 to zero to +1” gradient.  Degrees 1 and 9 represent opposite (or complementary) extremes of a spectrum/range while Degree 5 (sometimes Degree 4 or 6) represents a “mid-point” signifying a standard, normal, commonplace, neutral, zero, or baseline value.  This is the most common type of affix.  Any consonant-form that does not phonologically conform to the other types is a Gradient Type D1 affix. An example of a Gradient Type Zero affix is - shown below.

 

-

SQT    Sequence Relative to Present Context             

1

the former; primarily

2

two before preceding

3

one before preceding

4

immediately beforehand / the preceding / first (of two)

5

current/at hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]

6

next / following; then / next

7

one after next

8

second one after next

9

the latter; secondarily

 

 

·         Gradient Type D2:  A trivalent “-1 to zero to +1” gradient like Type D1 where Degrees 1 and 9 convey sufficiency connotations of “too little X” and “too much X”, where the operating sufficiency parameter is excessivesness (or the lack thereof).  Gradient Type D2 affixes either end in (or consist of) -x, or consist of two or more consonants ending in -m.  An example of a Gradient Type D2 affix is -km shown below.

 

-km

TME       Degree Of Timeliness (renamed from LAT) 

1

too early / too soon

2

(quite) early

3

a little early / a bit soon

4

almost late / not a moment too soon / none too soon

5

just in time / sharp / on the dot

6

slightly late but not enough to make a difference

7

a little late

8

late / just missed it

9

too late / you missed it

 

 

 

7.2  VXCS Affix Type

 

Each VXCS affix comes in three types, numbered 1, 2, and 3, indicated by variances in the initial vocalic component of the suffix.  For the purposes of grammatical notation, the degree of an affix is shown as a subscript to the vocalic V-marker of an affix (i.e., it replaces the subscript-x in the notation VXCS, e.g., -V2g/7). 

 

Use of the Type-1 version of a suffix caries a mere circumstantial meaning applicable to the context at hand in a subjectively incidental, happenstance, temporary, or informal manner, whereas the Type-2 version of a suffix implies a derivational meaning which can entail lexical differences when translating into English.

 

For example, the Type-1 suffix -urx, i.e., -V1rx/9, and its Type-2 counterpart -uirx , i.e., -V2rx/9, which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/indistinguishable from/identical…,’ the difference in usage being that the Type-1 suffix conveys merely a circumstantial or incidental similarity, while the Type-2 suffix implies that the similarity is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word wal ‘person’: walurx means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas waluirx means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say that the suffix -Vrx with Type-1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type-2 vocalic infixes it conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts or words are derived from the stem).

 

As for Type-3 suffixes, these are used in circumstances where the meaning of the suffix is meant to be applied not to the formative itself, but rather to the immediately adjacent suffix. This is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase ‘suddenly blue sky’, it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ithkuil, Type-3 affixes modify another affix (usually the one following, unless there are only two suffixes on the stem, in which case the affix order is irrelevant); this is done by using Type-3 vocalic infixes. For example, the affix -Vcč/7, which means ‘made-up, imaginary,’ can be used both circumstantially (using the Type-1 infix) and derivationally (using the Type-2 infix) to modify a stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using the Type-3 infix). Such suffixes must immediately precede the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which case they modify the immediately preceding suffix. This is illustrated below:

 

Type-1 affix:  walocča: ‘a made-up/imaginary person’

Type-2 affix:  waloicča: ‘a fictional person’ (i.e., a character from a work of fiction)

Type-3 affix:  waluocčox: ‘a person who is imagined to be large’ (where suffix -V1x/7 = ‘large’)

 

The following example illustrates the use of a Type-2 affix modified by a Type-3 affix to create the concept of ‘breakfast’, analyzable literally as “formal/conventionalized instance of morning-time eating/drinking of foodstuff”:

 

Alksodëubzuöřcá  kšilu.

‘eat/drink.foodstuff’-dyn-csv-prx-fea2/5-amd3/6-obs    ‘clown’-obj-ind

‘The clown is eating breakfast.’

 

 

 

7.3   Glottal Stop Requirements

 

There are two situations in which a glottal stop must be inserted into a formative in order to avoid confusion caused by the VXCS affixes in Slot V.  These are described below.

 

 

7.3.1   Using Slot II to Foreshadow the Presence of Multiple Affixes in Slot V

 

When Slot V of a formative contains more than one CSVX- or -VXCS- affix, it becomes a problem whether to interpret the consonant forms as CS forms or a CA form until the eventual “arrival” of the end-of-Slot-V marker.  Therefore, it is necessary to signal early on whether Slot V of a formative will contain more than one CSVX- or -VXCS- affix.  To do so, insert a glottal-stop into the VV-form of Slot II per the rules in Sec. 2.2.

 

 

7.3.2   Showing the End of Slot V in the Absence of a  Slot VI  CA  form

 

For formatives containing any Slot V VXCS affix(es) where the Slot VI CA form has been elided (see Sec. 3.10 on “short-cut” formatives), the end of Slot V is instead shown by inserting a glottal-stop into the VX form of the final Slot V VXCS affix.  This glottal-stop is inserted per the rules in Sec. 2.2.  (NOTE:  if such a Slot V glottal-stop is present and Slot I shows the word has a Slot IV/VI Shortcut, then the VC shortening rule from the Special Note in Sec. 4.6 cannot be used.)

 

 

 

7.4  Slot V Affixes versus Slot VII Affixes

 

There is a difference between Slots V versus Slot VII affixes in terms of the phonological structure of the affix, as well as a difference in the semantic scope of the affix over the rest of the formative.  This is explained as follows:

 

·         Slot V affixes:  If a CA complex is present in Slot VI of the formative, any Slot V affixes are shown in reversed form:  -CSVX-; however, if the Slot IV VR and Slot VI CA complex have been elided as indicated by Slot I (see Sec. 3.10 on “short-cut” formatives), then any Slot V affixes are shown in the standard form -VXCS-.  As detailed earlier in Sec. 3.6.1, the presence of a Slot V affix requires any Slot VI CA complex to be geminated.

 

ALSO:  The semantic scope of any Slot V affixes applies only to the formative Stem, not to its Slot VI CA affix-complex (i.e., the various meanings of the CA affix-complex are applied to the formative stem AFTER the stem has first been modified by its Slot V affixes).

 

·         Slot VII affixes are shown in standard form -VXCS- form, and apply to both the stem AND its CA affix-complex (i.e., the meanings of the CA affix-complex are applied to the formative stem first, then the resulting stem+CA complex is then modified by any Slot VII affixes).  Note that in the absence of any Slot V affix(es), the presence of any Slot VII affix(es) does not trigger the gemination of any Slot VI CA complex.

 

The following example illustrates the difference between placing the VXCS affix V1x/7 affix -ox (meaning ‘large in size’) in Slot V versus Slot VII:

 

            Slot V:  rraxoţţ  ‘a group of large but (otherwise) dissimilar cats’                            Slot VII:  rraţox  ‘a large group of dissimilar cats’

 

 

 

 

7.5  List of VXCS Affixes

 

While Sec. 9.1 above offered a small sample of the different kinds of VXCS affixes, there are in fact several hundred different VXCS affixes.  They are listed in a separate Affixes document.

 

 

 

 

7.6  Case-Accessor, Inverse Case-Accessor, and Case-Stacking Affixes

 

The concept of Case-Accessor, Inverse Case-Accessor, and Case-Stacking affixes was introduced in Sec. 4.11.  Because they superficially share the same phonological structure as VXCS affixes, and occupy Slots V and VII the same as VXCS affixes, we have waited until now to present the full list of such affixes and their phonological structure. 

 

TRANSRELATIVE CASES

VX

DESCRIPTION OF CASE

Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix

Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix

1

thm

thematic

a

The (usually inanimate) party which is a participant to the verbal predicate which does not undergo any tangible change of state.  Semantic role:  CONTENT.

party acting as the theme/content of X

that of/for which X functions as the theme/content

2

ins instrumental

ä

The entity acting as means utilized by an explicit or implicit agent to implement/carry out the effect/impact of an act/event.  Semantic role:   INSTRUMENT.

the instrument/means by/via which X occurs

that by/via which X is the instrument/means

3

abs absolutive

e

The party that/who is the target of, and/or undergoes, the effect/impact or change of state as a result of a tangible act/event.  Semantic role:  PATIENT.

the patient to which/whom X happens

that which happens/is done to the patient X

4

aff

affective

i

The party who undergoes an unwilled, affective experience, e.g., coughing, sneezing, feeling hot/cold, trembling, experiencing sensory input (tactile, olfactory, visual, aural, gustatory), proprioceptive states, psychological/emotional states, reflex reactions such as cringing, yawning, ducking, screaming in fright, etc.  Semantic role:  EXPERIENCER.

the experiencer or undergoer of X (as an affective experience)

that which the X undergoes as an affective experience

5

stm stimulative

ëi

The party/entity/idea/thought/situation or mental state which triggers an unwilled, affective response or is the trigger for an existential state such as possession.2  Semantic role: STIMULUS.

that which is the affective stimulus of X

that of/for which X is the affective stimulus

6

eff effectuative

ö

The party/force that initiates a chain of causal events or who induces another party to act as an agent (specifiable via the ENB affix).  Role:  ENABLER

the enabler initiating an event chain leading to X

the event (chain) that the enabler X initiates

7

erg

ergative

o

The animate party or inanimate force which initiates/causes an act/event which creates a tangible effect or change of state in a patient.  Semantic role:  AGENT or FORCE.

the agent who/that X’s

that which the agent or force X does/initiates

8

dat

dative

ü

The party which is the (intended) recipient of a verb of transference, transmission, or communication; the party at/to which a physically transferred entity, transmitted information, or a communicable entity is directed.  Semantic role:  RECIPIENT.

the recipient of X or of the act of X

that which the recipient X receives

9

ind

inducive

u

The patient who undergoes the tangible effect, impact, or change of state of an act/event initiated/caused by that self-same party.  Semantic role:  AGENT+PATIENT.

the agent who/that X’s him-/her-/itself

that which the agent X does to him-/her-/itself

 

 

 

APPOSITIVE CASES

VX

DESCRIPTION OF CASE

Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix

Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix

10

pos
possessive

ai

The party which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation.

the alienable / circumstantial possessor of X

that which X alienably or circumstantially possesses

11

prp
proprietive

au

The party having alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever.

the owner of X; that to which/whom X belongs

that to whom/which X belongs; that which X owns

12

gen
genitive

ei

The party which has inalienable (i.e., irremovable, non-severable) possession of or association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) bond.

the inalienable possessor of X

that which X inalienably possesses

13

att
attributive

eu

The party which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective (see the affective case above) relationship with another noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature.

that to which/whom X is an attribute/characteristic

that which X has as an attribute/characteristic

14

pdc
productive

ëu

The party which is the creator, author or originator of another noun.

the originator / author / or creator of X

that which X authored / created or originated

15

itp interpretative

ou

The party acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the noun by or through which another noun is subjectively considered, interpreted or described, e.g., Monet’s Paris, my baseball team (as spoken by a fan).

the party X by / thru  which / whom something is subjectively interpreted / considered / described

that which is subject-ively considered, described or inter-preted by/thru X

16

ogn originative

oi

The party which is the literal or figurative source of another, or which is the native location, origin, or usual locative context for another.

the original or inherent location/source of X

that of which X is the original or inherent source/location

17

idp interdependent

iu

The party which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within its natural context

that with which, or to which, X has a complementary relationship

that which is the complementary relationship shared with X

18

par
partitive

ui

Indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, a train(load) of refugees, twelve chairs.

that of which X is its apportioned or enumerated contents

that which is X’s appor-tioned or enumerated contents; an X-ful [of]

 

 

 

ASSOCIATIVE CASES

VX

DESCRIPTION OF CASE

Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix

Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix

19

apl applicative

ia / uä

The entity/act/event which constitutes the circumstantial, potentially one-time, temporary purpose of another entity/act/event.  ‘for the (circumstantial/temporary/one-time) purpose of X’, ‘being used (temporarily/circumstantially) as X’

the purpose/function/use to which X is circumstantially put

that which has X as its circumstantial, temporary use/function/purpose

20

pur
purposive

ie / uë

The entity/act/event which constitutes the inherent/innate/intrinsic purpose of another entity/act/event.  ‘for the (dedicated) purpose/function of X’

the intrinsic / inherent / innate purpose of X

that which has X as its intrinsic, inherent, innate purpose

21

tra transmissive

io / üä

Renamed from the benefactive in Ithkuil 2011, this case indicates the party for which/whom an entity/act/event occurs or is transmitted, with the intention that the entity/act/event be beneficial/detrimental to the named party.  ‘for (the benefit/detriment of) X’

that which/whom the intended benefit / detriment from X is for

that which is the intended benefit or detriment of (receiving/being impacted by) X

22

dfr deferential

iö / üë

The entity for whose sake, or out of deference/respect to whom, an act/event occurs.  ‘for X’s sake’, ‘out of deference for X’, ‘out of respect for X’

the one for whose sake, or out of deference / respect to whom, X occurs

that which occurs or is done out of respect/deference, or for the sake of, X

23

crs contrastive

The party for which something is substituted, or of which another party/entity takes its place; ‘instead of X’, ‘as a substitute for X’, ‘in place of X’

that which substitutes for X or takes X’s place

that for which X is substituted or whose place X takes

24

tsp transpositive

uö / öë

The party on whose behalf something is/occurs.

that on whose behalf  X occurs/is

that which is (done) on X’s behalf

25

cmm  commutative

uo / öä

The party in exchange for which, a reciprocal or complementary act/event occurs; e.g., He paid 100 dollars in exchange for the tickets.

that which is received in an act of exchange

that which is relinquished in an act of exchange

26

cmp comparative

ue / ië

The party being compared to another, translatable as ‘as compared to’, ‘as opposed to,’ ‘versus’; with verbs it translates as ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). Examples: She chose the red one as opposed to the others, Sam drives a van versus Joe, who prefers a truckAt the party, she danced while/whereas I ate.

that which is according to or pursuant to X; that which occurs as per, or in conformance to X

that, according to or pursuant to which, or as per or in conformance to which, X is/occurs

27

csd considerative

ua / iä

The entity according to which, another entity is, or an act/event occurs.

that which is according to X

that which X is according to

 

 

 

ADVERBIAL CASES

VX

DESCRIPTION OF CASE

Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix

Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix

28

fun
functive

ao

Identifies a noun used to describe/characterize the manner in which an act/event/state occurs or exists, e.g., She dances gracefully; The boys ate with gusto; That clown is speaking nonsense; Father speaks with such fortitude.

the manner in which X is/occurs

that which is/occurs in a manner described or characterized by X

29

tfm transformative

Identifies the outcome or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after undergoing some transformation. Examples: The house burned to ashes, Mother reached a state of tranquility, The clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank himself to death.

that into which, X transforms/changes

that which is/occurs as a result of the transformation of X

30

cla classificative

eo

identifies a noun as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, e.g., Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.  Also identifies the basis for recurring increments, e.g., month by month; day in, day out; box upon box, clown after clown.

the basis by which X is arranged, sorted, patterned or counted

that which is arranged, sorted, patterned, or counted by/via X

31

rsl
resultative

Identifies a result/consequence, translatable as ‘resulting in X’, ‘with X as a consequence’, etc.

the result / consequence of which, X occurs/is

that which results from or is a consequence of X

32

csm consumptive

Identifies the entity consumed or used as a resource as a result of, or as a concurrent part of a process, e.g., She cooks with tomatoes, The clown fed her an apple, He reads by candle(light).

that by which X is consumed or used up

that which is consumed in the process of X

33

con
concessive

öe

identifies a noun or phrase which gives rise to an implicitly expected result which does not occur. This translates in many ways such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples: In spite of his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), they are welcome, Although a foreigner, we will let him in.

that, in spite of or regardless of which, X occurs/is

that which is/occurs in spite of or regardless of X

34

avr
aversive

oe

Identifies a source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in avoidance of.’ With verbs, it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples: She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled by night to avoid the sun.  Hide the children, lest the clowns find them.

that, in aversion to which, X occurs/is

that which is/occurs in avoidance or fear of X

35

cvs
conversive

öa

Identifies an exception.  When the exception is to a hypothetical situation, it translates as ‘unless’ in verbal phrases, and ‘without’ for nouns, e.g., Without peace, this society is doomed; We’ll be safe unless the clowns find us.  If applied to a real or actual situation, it translates as ‘except (for)’, ‘but for,’ ‘but (not), ‘excluding’, ‘if not for,’ ‘if it wasn’t for,’ ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ If not for the rain, we would have had a good time; She loves everybody except clowns; All pets are vermin, excluding dogs; He eats almost anything but (not) spinach.

that, if not for which, or but for which, or except for which, X (would) occur(s)

that which would be/occur but for, or if not for, or except for X

36

sit
situative

oa 

Identifies a noun as the background context for a clause without implying any direct causative relationship between the background context and the associated or consequent act/state/event.  It translates in many ways, e.g.,  Because of war, our planet will never be able to join the Federation;  Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption of our children; With my plan, we will defeat the enemy.  Other translations include:  ‘inasmuch as / insofar as / to the extent that / taking X into account / in view of the fact that / given that / considering’.

that, because of which, or given which, X occurs/is

that which is/occurs because of, on account of, or given, X

 

 

 

RELATIONAL CASES

VX

DESCRIPTION OF CASE

Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix

Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix

37

prn pertinential

a

Identifies the general referent of another formative, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ 

that which X is about or to which X pertains or is in regard to

that which pertains to X or which is about or in regard to X

38

dsp descriptive

ä

Identifies a formative as describing another formative in an adjectival manner, translatable as ‘characterized/describable as being like X; characterized/describable as having the quality/qualities of X’

that which is characterized or describable by/as X

that which character-izes or functions as a description for X

39

cor correlative

e

Indicates an abstract general relationship, association, or conjunction between one formative and another, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association with,’ e.g., career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, Our next topic is sex and/in art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex).

that which X is associated/relative to or in relation to

that which is associated with or relative to X

40

cps compositive

i

identifies a noun as being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cardsThree suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

that of which X is made/composed or consists of

that which consists of, is made of, or is composed of X

41

com comitative

ëi

Identifies a formative that accompanies another, translatable as ‘(along) with’.  When used with parallel or complementary valence, signifies that the formative is being used in the same (or a complementary) way or is undergoing the same (or a complementary) activity as the other formative it is associated with (i.e., the meaning of the conjunctive case in Ithkuil 2011).

that which accompanies X

that which X accompanies

42

utl
utilitative

ö

Identifies a formative in the process of being used while some other activity or state is in progress.  It does not imply the INSTRUMENT of an act as does the instrumental case.  Examples:  the gun-wielding man, the umbrella-toting pedestrian, a girl with backpack (on).

that which circumstantially uses/utilizes X

that which is used or utilized circumstantially by X

43

prd predicative

o

Identifies the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, success supported by corruption.

that upon which X relies or is based upon

that which relies on or is based upon X

44

rlt
relative

u

Identifies a formative (or case-frame) as constituting a relative clause associated with the preceding formative (or whatever formative is indicated by the DCD affix as being the head of the relative clause).  NOTE:  a lone formative in relative case not functioning as an external head of a relative clause need not be in framed Relation (See Sec.5.4 of this document).

that which identifies or distinguishes X from other parties

the party identified by or distinguishable by X

 

 

 

AFFINITIVE CASES

VX

DESCRIPTION OF CASE

Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix

Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix

45

act
activative

ai

Identifies the experiencer of a modal state, such as obligation, necessity, desire, hope, expectation, wishing, being able to, etc. functioning as the “subject” of a modal(ized) verb governing a hypothetical state (i.e., what is wanted, needed, expected, able to be done, etc.)

the one who experiences a modal state of X

The modal state which X experiences

46

asi assimilative

au

Identifies a formative used as a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to another formative; translatable as ‘as/like’ meaning ‘as if (it were) X’ in the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another that it is not, e.g., She sings like a bird;  Treat her as/like a princess (= as if she were a princess), He talks like a child (even though he’s an adult).

that which/who is/does like or as (it were) X

that, as if it were which, X is/ occurs

47

ess
essive

ei

Identifies the role or name by which an entity is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as/like’ in the sense of naming or reference to the an entity’s functional identity, e.g., They called him a clown, The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider you our only hope, Treat her as/like a princess (because she is one), He talks like a child (because he is a child)..

that whose role is X, or what/who is named (as) X

that, in whose role/name, X is/occurs

48

trm terminative

eu

Identifies a noun as being the goal of an act/event, e.g., We seek a new planet; a desire to see his homeland; an academy for (making) champions

X’s goal; what X pursues as a goal

the goal X

49

sel
selective

ëu

Identifies a contextually recurring time-period, as well as a string of recurring entities, e.g., I visit him every three daysEach year, I travel to the Clown Planet; He works nightsBy day, she is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays; ...every third book; ...every green one.

the recurring entity/period on/for/with which X occurs

that which is/occurs on a recurrent schedule or iteration X

50

cfm conformative

ou

The entity pursuant to which, as per which, or in conformance with which, another entity is, or an act/event occurs.

that which is pursuant to, as per, or in conformance with  X

that which X is pursuant to or in conformance with

51

 

dep dependent

oi

identifies as formative as being the basis of a dependency phrase on which another formative or phrase acts as the contingency, translatable as ‘...if the circumstances regarding X are such to allow/warrant it’ where the final “it” refers to the original contingency noun/phrase whose existence/occurrence is (at least in part) determined by or contingent upon the dependency phrase.  The exact nature of the dependency can be specified using the DPC affix.

that upon which the existence/occurrence of X depends

that whose existence or occurrence depends on X

52

voc 
vocative

ui

Signifies a noun being used in direct address.

 

 

 

SPATIO-TEMPORAL  I

VX

DESCRIPTION OF CASE

Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix

Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix

53

loc locative

ia / uä

entity identified as the location where something is situated or occurs; ‘at / in / on / by X’

where X occurs/is (situated); X’s location

that which is located, situated, or occurring at X

54

atd attendant

ie / uë

entity in whose presence something is/occurs and which/who is thereby involved in some peripheral manner (e.g., as a witness, as a party affected or stimulated to action, etc.)

that in whose presence which, X is/occurs

that which is situated or occurring in X’s presence

55

all
 allative

io / üä

entity toward which another entity is moving/approaching

where X is headed/going toward

that which is headed toward X

56

abl
ablative

iö / üë

entity away from which another entity is moving/receding

where X is coming from or moving away from

that which is coming from or moving away from X

57

ori orientative

entity (often a body part or sub-component) which serves as the “face” or surface or “front” or “head” of an entity in terms of external communication or interaction, or which serves as the forward “end” of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion in terms of directional movement.

that which serves as X’s orientational interface

that which is oriented, facing in the direction designated by X

58

irl interrelative

uö / öë

signifies the directional/temporal orientation or position of an entity relative to another, i.e., a noun relative to whose position in space or time another noun is being described for purposes of spatial/temporal orientation, e.g., He turned his back on me, It lies just west of the house, Tell me when the parade starts relative to my arrival.

the place/time relative to which, X is/occurs

that which occurs relative to the place/time designated by X

59

inv intrative

uo / öä

Identifies a noun as being the spatio-temporal boundary point of a span or volume of space or a period of time, i.e, either the starting point or the ending point of a span of time or space.  English translations include: ‘as of X’ / ‘since X’  /‘until X’; for spatial contexts, translates as “between there and here” / “between here and there”)\

the place/time since/until/between which, X is/occurs

that which occurs since, until, or between the place(s)/time(s) designated by X

60

nav navigative

ua / iä

entity whose literal or metaphorically inferred long axis serves as the direction of another entity’s path, course, arc, or trajectory of translative motion

that which serves as X’s directional trajectory, path or way

that which is traveling along the directional trajectory, path or way designated by X

 

 

 

SPATIO-TEMPORAL  II

VX

DESCRIPTION OF CASE

Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix

Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix

61

cnr concursive

ao

indicates a “temporal locative” meaning ‘at or during the time of X’, i.e., the point or stretch in time at or during which an entity or an act/event exists or occurs. 

when X is/occurs

that which is/occurs at a certain time X

62

ass assessive

Specifies the increment of space or time or unit by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, e.g., He charges by the minute.  It travels at 90 kilometers per hour.  He earns $25 per book.

the spatiial, temporal, or unit basis for the ratio by which X is measured, alloted, etc.

that which is measured via a ratio based on a spatial, temporal, or unit increment X.

63

per
periodic

eo

identifies the span of time / time frame at some point(s) during which, separate events, repetitions, or durationally segmented acts or states take place. Examples would be He wrote the novel in/over six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this yearFor the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

the time period or event during which X occurs

that which is/occurs during or within a time period X

64

pro prolapsive

signifies the duration of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts, e.g., He prayed through lunch, It rained all night, It took three days for the fever to break, She sang for an hour.

(the time period or event constituting) the duration of X

that which lasts, endures, or takes up an amount of time X

65

pcv precursive

Identifies an entity acting as a point in time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs, e.g., ‘this city before the war, ‘a presentation preceding the banquet’.

the act/event or point in time, prior to which, X occurs

the act/event or point in time which is/occurs prior to X

66

pcr postcursive

öe

Identifies an entity acting as a point in time after which, following which, subsequent to which, an act, state, or event occurs, e.g., ‘this city after the war, ‘a presentation following the banquet’, ‘It’s been a long time since I danced’.

the act/event or time, after/following which or subsequent to which, X occurs

the act/event or time which is/occurs after or following or subsequent to X

67

elp
elapsive

oe

identifies the amount of time that has passed or is expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of the act, condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago’ or ‘...from now’.  Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going back three generations, women could not even voteFour years from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.  The past vs. future distinction is determined from context, any aspectual morphology, or may be specified with the new TPL affix.

the amount of elapsed time between X and a past or future act/event/time

 

the act/event/state which occurs X amount of elapsed time between then and the contextual present.

68

plm prolimitive

oa

Signifies the spatio-temporal boundary point of a span of time or space during which or within which something is expected to or must occur or be situated.  Equivalent to English phrases: by the end of X / within the period ending in X / within the period ending with X / before X is over / before X is up / inside of (the period signified by) X

the time/event by which time X is/occurs

the act/event or point in time which is/occurs by the time of X

 

 

 

7.6.1   The Phonological Structure of Case-Accessor, Inverse Case-Accessor, and Case-Stacking Affixes

 

The phonological structure of these affixes is as follows:  The VX portion of the affix is the standard four vowel-form series of regular VXCS affixes.  There are two separate CS increments for each of the seven types of affix (Types-1, -2, and -3 Case-Accessor, Types-1, -2, and -3 Inverse Case-Accessor, and Case-Stacking Affix), the first CS increment being used for Cases 1 through 36, while the second CS increment is used for Cases 37 through 68.

 

VX for the first 36 cases is the first four standard-vowel form series (i.e., the same as their corresponding VC case-affixes).  Cases 37-68 utilize the same four vowel-form series (i.e., no glottal-stop is added to the VX increment), the distinction from the first 36 cases being indicated by their different CS increment. This structure allows case-accessor and case-stacking affixes to appear in Slot V or Slot VII or in affixual adjuncts. See Sec. 5.7 as to how using the case-stacking affix on unframed verbal formatives can function as a substitute for case-frames.

 

 

Case-Accessor Affix

Inverse Case-Accessor Affix

Case-Stacking Affix

Type-1

Type-2

Type-3

Type-1

Type-2

Type-3

VX =
Series No.

CS =

VX =
Series No.

CS =

VX =
Series No.

CS =

VX =
Series No.

CS =

VX =
Series No.

CS =

VX =
Series No.

CS =

VX =
Series No.

CS =

Cases 1 thru 9

1

 

sw

1

 

zw

1

 

čw

1

 

šw

1

 

žw

1

 

jw

1

 

lw

Cases 10 thru 18

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

Cases 19 thru 27

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

Cases 28 thru 36

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

Cases 37 thru 44 *

1

 

sy

1

 

zy

1

 

čy

1

 

šy

1

 

žy

1

 

jy

1

 

ly

Cases 45 thru 52 *

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

Cases 53 thru 60 *

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

Cases 61 thru 68 *

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

*   For Cases 37 through 68:  since these four case-groups each contain only  eight cases rather than nine and Vowel-Form No. 8 (the ü-tier) for each group is not used, similarly the eighth tier of vowel-forms are not used for these case-accessor or case-stacking affixes.

 

 

7.6.2   Examples of Type-1 and Type-2 Case-Assessor Affixes in Use

 

Pţödá  lu  psoloswëi.

‘seek’-obj/dyn-prx-obs   1m/neu-ind    ‘cause.to.happen’-csv/dyn-[default CA]-ACCESSOR:ERG1-stm

‘What I’m seeking is the party who has done this.’

 

 

Pţödá  lu  psolozwëi.

‘seek’-obj/dyn-prx-obs   1m/neu-ind    ‘cause.to.happen’-csv/dyn-[default CA]-ACCESSOR:ERG2-stm

‘What I’m seeking is the perpetrator.’

 

 

Äţtulalzói  la’i  welošwa  kšile.

cpt-‘know’-dyn-[default CA]- dsd1/1-pot   1m/neu-act    [default CA]-stem2/prc-‘child’-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:ERG1-thm    ‘clown’-obj-[default CA]-abs

‘I want to know what the child did to the clown.’

 

 

Malalzói  la’i  erdwilařstëuswü.

‘talk’-[default CA]-dsd1/1-pot   1m/neu-act    stem2/cpt-‘building’-obj-[default CA]-lcm1/1-ACCESSOR:PDC1-dat

‘I want to talk to the designer of the building.’

 

 

Malalzói  la’i  erdwilařstëuzwü.

‘talk’-[default CA]-dsd1/1-pot   1m/neu-act    stem2/cpt-‘building’-obj-[default CA]-lcm1/1-ACCESSOR:PDC2-dat

‘I want to talk to the architect of the building.’

 

 

Malalzói  la’i  erdwili’sya.

‘talk’-[default CA]-dsd1/1-pot   1m/neu-act    stem2/cpt-‘building’-obj-[default CA]-ACCESSOR:CPS1-prn

‘I want to talk about what the building is made out of.’

 

 

Malalzói  la’i  erdwili’zya.

‘talk’-[default CA]-dsd1/1-pot   1m/neu-act    stem2/cpt-‘building’-obj-[default CA]-ACCESSOR:CPS2-prn

‘I want to talk about the building’s construction materials.’

 

 

Kšilá  welëisya.

‘clown’-obj-[default CA]-obs      [default CA]-stem2/prc-‘child’-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:COM1-thm

‘The one whom the child is with is a clown.’

 

 

Kšilá  welëizya.

‘clown’-obj-[default CA]-obs      [default CA]-stem2/prc-‘child’-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:COM2-thm

‘The child’s chaperone is a clown.’

 

 

 

7.6.3   Type-3 Case-Assessor & Inverse Case-Assessor Affixes

 

Use these to modify an adjacent VXCS; the Type-3 accessor modifies the adjacent affix so that it refers to an appropriate participant to the formative where the nature of participation is indicated by the particular case of the accessor affix.  The following are examples comparing a Type-3 case-accessor with its inverse counterpart: 

 

wupsovļäčwa   [default CA]-stem3/prc-‘event’-ple/7-ACCESSOR:INS3    ‘that by which a pleasant event occurs’

wupsovļäjwa    [default CA]-stem3/prc-‘event’-ple/7-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:INS3    ‘what a pleasant event is used for’ 

 

 

weproptočwa    [default CA]-stem2/prc-‘upward.motion’-‘dng1/7-ACCESSOR:ERG3   ‘the one who dangerously pushes (it) upward’

weproptojwa     [default CA]-stem2/prc-‘upward.motion’-‘dng1/7-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:ERG3   ‘that which one dangerously pushes upward’ 

 

 

wufjopčiečwa    [default CA]-stem3/prc-‘interfere’-aut1/7-ACCESSOR:PUR3    ‘the purpose for using one’s authority to interfere’

wufjopčiejwa     [default CA]-stem3/prc-‘interfere’-aut1/7-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:PUR3   ‘what using one’s authority to interfere is for’

 

 

weläxţičya      [default CA]-stem2/prc-‘child’-cnc2/2-ACCESSOR:TRM3     ‘the selfish child’s goal’ / ‘what the selfish child is after’

weläxţijya       [default CA]-stem2/prc-‘child’-cnc2/2-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:TRM3  ‘the goal being a selfish child’ / ‘in pursuit/hope of a selfish child’

 

 

NOTE:  Whenever one uses a Type-3 affix, whether a standard VXCS affix or a Type-3 case-accessor or Type-3 inverse case-accessor affix, it should be remembered that the Type-3 affix qualifies the immediately preceding affix only (or following affix if there are only two affixes in that particular Slot), the Type-3 affix does not qualify the formative as a whole.  If the use of the Type-3 affix results in semantic ambiguity or incoherence, do not use a Type-3 affix.

 

 

 

7.6.4   Examples of Case-Stacking Affixes

 

Hmažfie-egulirkwá  ru  yamţröalwa’o.

prx/concatenated:prc-‘healthy.state’-pur-parent:stem.2-‘ambulate’-dyn-cyc1/4-obs     1m/ben-ind     prx-prc-‘rain-CVS-cnr
‘I jog every day except during the rain.’

 

 

Case-stacking allows for an alternative to case-frames.  For example, examine the following sentence which uses a relative case-frame:

 

Ẓulá   mu   eňtyarka   bzmare’na  äšgú’layu  ro. 
‘see’-dyn-[default CA]-obs     ma/neu-ind     stem2-prc-‘written.page’-msc/coa-thm   ‘rat’- g-tpf1/3-prn   cpt-‘capture’-dyn/FRAMED-[default CA]-rtr-RLT  1m/ben-erg         
‘S/he looks at the book about the rats I captured.’

 

 

Now compare the above sentence to the following which uses a relative case-stacking affix in lieu of a case-frame:

 

Ẓulá   mu   eňtyarka   bzmarulye’na  äšgulayâ  ro. 
‘see’-dyn-[default CA]-obs     ma/neu-ind     stem2-prc-‘written.page’-msc/coa-thm   ‘rat’-g-rlt-tpf1/3-RLT -prn    cpt-‘capture’-dyn-[default CA]-rtr-rec  1m/ben-erg         
‘S/he looks at the book about the rats I captured.’

 

To understand more clearly how the ordering of the formatives, the placement of the case-stacking affix, and the use of the TPF affix serves to give the above sentence its specific meaning, compare it to the following sentence with its subtlely different meaning:

 

Ẓulá   mu   eňtyarka  äšgú’laya  ro  bzmare. 
‘see’-dyn-[default CA]-obs     ma/neu-ind     stem2-prc-‘written.page’-msc/coa-thm   cpt-‘capture’-dyn/framed-[default CA]-rtr-prn  1m/ben-erg   prc-‘rat’-g-abs       
‘S/he looks at the book about me having captured the rats.’

 

 

 

7.7  Using Slot II as a “Short-Cut” for Three Common Affixes

 

Formatives whose Slot I value is either [zero], h-, or hw- (i.e., the formative does not contain a Slot IV/VI a+CA shortcut as per Sec. 3.10), have the option of using their Slot II vowel-form to show one of three common VXCS affixes:  NEG1/4, DCD1/4, or DCD1/5.  (See the Affixes document for the meaning of these three affixes.)  Note that if one of these three optional Affix Shortcuts is used, this affix has scope over the stem, its CA complex, and any other VXCS affixes within the formative (i.e., it operates as if it were the last affix in Slot VII).  The Slot II vowel-form short-cuts for these three affixes are shown in the table below.

 

 

Slot II VV Values if Slot I is [zero], h-, or hw-  (i.e., the formative does not contain a Slot IV/VI a+CA shortcut)

 

Stem

Version

VV

VV  +  Optional Affix Shortcuts

NEG/4

DCD/4

DCD/5

Stem 1

PRC

(a)

ai

ia / uä

ao

CPT

ä

au

ie / uë

Stem 2

PRC

e

ei

io / üä

eo

CPT

i

eu

iö / üë

Stem 3

PRC

u

ui

ua / iä

oa 

CPT

ü

iu

ue / ië

öa

   Stem 0 *

PRC

o

oi

uo / öä

oe

CPT

ö

ou

uö / öë

öe

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction

4  Case Morphology

8  Adjuncts

12  The Writing System

1  Phonology

5  Verb Morphology

9  Referentials

13  Numbers

2  Morpho-Phonology

6  More Verb Morphology

10  Special Constructions

14  The Lexicon

3  Basic Morphology

7  Affixes

11  Syntax

Appendices