A CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE

Introduction	4 Case Morphology	8 Adjuncts	12 The Writing System
1 Phonology	5 Verb Morphology	9 Referentials	13 Numbers
2 Morpho-Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	10 Special Constructions	14 The Lexicon
3 Basic Morphology	7 Affixes	11 Syntax	Appendices

5.0 VERBAL MORPHOLOGY

Formatives functioning as verbs in a sentence, rather than nouns, may display several additional morphological categories not found in nouns, including Valence, Mood, Phase, Level, Effect, and Aspect, each of which is discussed in Sections 5.1 through 5.6 below. All of these categories are shown via the V_NC_N affix in Slot VIII of a formative. The V_NC_N affix itself is comprised of two different patterns of a vocalic form V_N followed by a consonant form C_N. The first of these patterns uses the first four vowel-form series of the Standard Vowel Sequence to respectively indicate Valence, Phase, Level and Effect while the consonant indicates either Mood or Case-Scope (depending on the V_C/V_K syllabic stress distinction from Slot X). The second pattern uses the same four vowel-form series to show Aspect, differentiated from the first pattern by the C_N consonant. The structure and patterns of the Slot VIII V_NC_N affix are shown in the various tables below

Standard Slot Structure of a Formative

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
(C_C	V_V )	C_R	V_R	(C_SV_X...)	C_A	(V_XC_S...)	(V_NC_N)	V_C / V_K	[stress]
Concatenation status indicator	Version + Stem	Main Root	Function + Specification + Context	V_XC_S affix(es) apply to stem but not to C_A Form is -C_SV_X- (i.e., reversed from standard Slot VII V_XC_S form)	Configuration + Extension + Affiliation + Perspective + Essence	V_XC_S affixes apply to stem + C_A	Valence + Mood/Case-Scope or Phase + Mood/Case-Scope or Level + Mood/Case-Scope or Effect + Mood/Case-Scope or Aspect + Mood/Case-Scope	Case or Format or Illocution + Expectation + Validation as determined by Slot X syllabic stress	penultimate stress = unframed Relation + V_C ultimate stress = unframed Relation + V_K antepenultimate stress = framed Relation + V_C
Concatenation status indicator	Version + Stem	Main Root	Function + Specification + Context			V_XC_S affixes apply to stem + C_A
consonantal form consisting of either a glottal stop or a form beginning with -h-.	vocalic affix	cons. form	vocalic affix	consonant + vowel	if Slot V is filled, C_A is geminated	vowel + consonant	Modular Slot containing a vowel-form + consonant-form	vocalic affix

Slot VIII – Pattern 1: Valence or Phase or Level or Effect + Mood/Case-Scope

V_N

MOOD

C_N

Case-Scope

VALENCE

PHASE

EFFECT

LEVEL*

FAC

(h)

CCN

NATURAL

1 MNO

(a)

PCT

1:BEN

ia / uä

MIN

SUB

hl

CCA

ANTECEDENT

2 PRL

ITR

2:BEN

ie / uë

SBE

aö

ASM

hr

CCS

SUBALTERN

3 CRO

REP

3:BEN

io / üä

IFR

SPC

hm

CCQ

QUALIFIER

4 RCP

ITM

SLF:BEN

iö / üë

DFT

eö

COU

hn

CCP

PRECEDENT

5 CPL

ëi

RCT

ëu

UNK [unknown]

eë

EQU

oë

HYP

hň

CCV

SUCCESSIVE

6 DUP

FRE

SLF:DET

uö / öë

SUR

öe

7 DEM

FRG

3:DET

uo / öä

SPL

8 CNG

VAC

2:DET

ue / ië

SPQ

öa

9 PTI

FLC

1:DET

ua / iä

MAX

* Series 4 vowel-forms show relative Level only; for absolute Level, instead use the LVL V_XC_S affix in Formative Slots V or VII or use an affixual adjunct

Slot VIII – Pattern 2: Aspect + Mood/Case-Scope

ASPECT V_N

MOOD

C_N

Case-Scope

RTR

retrospective

RSM

resumptive

PMP

preemptive

ia / uä

DCL

disclusive

FAC

w/y

CCN

PRS

prospective

CSS

cessative

CLM

climactic

ie / uë

CCL

conclusive

aö

SUB

hw

CCA

HAB

habitual

PAU

pausal

DLT

dilatory

io / üä

CUL

culminative

ASM

hrw

CCS

PRG

progressive

RGR

regressive

TMP

temporary

iö / üë

IMD

intermediative

eö

SPC

hmw

CCQ

IMM

imminent

ëi

PCL

preclusive

ëu

XPD

expenditive

eë

TRD

tardative

oë

COU

hnw

CCP

PCS

precessive

CNT

continuative

LIM

limitative

uö / öë

TNS

transitional

öe

HYP

hňw

CCV

REG

regulative

ICS

incessative

EPD

expeditive

uo / öä

ITC

intercommutative

SMM

summative

EXP

experiential

PTC

protractive

ue / ië

MTV

motive

öa

ATP

anticipatory

IRP

interruptive

PPR

preparatory

ua / iä

SQN

sequential

Column 1 denotes aspects which place an event/state at some point or duration along a past-to-future linear timeline. Column 2 denotes aspects which describe the “shape” or structure of a durational event. Column 3 denotes aspects which associate an effect or “consequence” to the temporal aspect of a state/event on a past-to-future linear timeline. Colum 4 denotes six aspects which associate non-temporal adverbial notions to the start or end of a state/event, plus three miscellaneous aspects.

5.1 Valence

The term Valence as used in this grammar refers to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

1a) I found an old man.	→	1b) I found an empty can.
2a) I threw the ball at Sam.	→	2b) I threw the ball at the window.
3a) I performed in front of her.	→	3b) I performed in front of the wall.

Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below:

1c) I met an old man.	→	1d) * I met an empty can.
2c) I threw Sam the ball.	→	2d) * I threw the window the ball.
3c) I entertained her.	→	3d) * I entertained the wall.

The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why? The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by catching it.

Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).

Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ithkuil into the category called Valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc. In Ithkuil, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively as well as co-actively.

There are nine valences in New Ithkuil: the monoactive, parallel, corollary, reciprocal, complementary, duplicative, demonstrative, contingent, and participative. Valence is shown by the vocalic V_N affix in formative Slot VIII. Note that the presence of a V_N affix in Slot VIII requires that it be immediately followed by a consonantal C_N affix denoting either the category of Mood (see Sec. 5.2 below) or Case-Scope (see Sec. 4.10). The nine valences are explained below.

5.1.1

MNO

The Monoactive

The monoactive valence is the default valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second party is implied.

Švel elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-mno-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are playing on the floor.’

[the implication being that the two children are not playing with each other nor are they necessarily playing the same game]

5.1.2

PRL

The Parallel

The parallel valence indicates that a second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

Švelähá elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-PRL-fac-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are playing on the floor.’ [they are playing the same kind of game but separately from each other]

5.1.3

CRO

The Corollary

The corollary valence is similar to the parallel, except that the second party engages in related activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed to playing an instrument).

Švelehá elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-CRO-fac-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are playing on the floor.’ [they are playing at the same time, but each is playing a different game]

5.1.4

RCP

The Reciprocal

The reciprocal valence indicates identical activity by one party directed at another party and vice-versa, thus translating the English adverbial phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in The clown and the grocer despise one another. NOTE, however, that in sentences where two parties in a reciprocal relationship are named by one referent, the verb often requires use of the SBS suffix on the referent to indicate that separate parties within the named referent are participating in the reciprocal relationship, otherwise, the party named will be assumed as a whole to constitute one “side” of the reciprocal activity (as in the example immediately below).

Švelihá elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-RCP-fac-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are playing on the floor.’ [they are playing with another, unnamed party, presumably other children. See NOTE immediately below]

-dř	SBS Subset of Configurative Set
1	single specific member (random, i.e., any given member)
2	natural first level subset, e.g., a cell among a network, a clique within a club, a row of an orchard
3	natural 2nd level subset, e.g., section of a network, subcommittee within a club, section of an orchard
4	complex natural system or pattern within a set (e.g., the circulatory system, the heating system)
5	subset of set (unknown if natural or select sub-configuration)
6	complex/circumstantial select pattern/arrangement within a set (e.g., the parts/things of a house damaged by fire)
7	2nd level subset (externally determined), e.g., select section of trees of an orchard
8	first level subset (externally determined), e.g., select rocks from a pile, select trees of an orchard
9	single select member (externally determined)

The following examples illustrate the usage of RCP valence and the SBS suffix:

Šveladřihá elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-SBS₁/1-RCP-fac-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are playing on the floor.’ [they are playing with each other]

If it is necessary to specify a specific case-relationship for one or both parties in the reciprocal relationship, it will be necessary to name the parties separately so that appropriate cases can be assigned. For example:

Wioňihá puyuöt.

[default C_A]-n-‘write’-RCP-fac-obs ma/ben-ind+tsp-2m/ben

‘You (two) write on each other’s behalf.’ (literally: ‘(S)he writes on behalf of you and vice-versa.’)

Malihá lalecu welü kši’la.

‘talk’-[default C_A]-RCP-fac-obs ‘person’-[default C_A]-gid₁/3-ind [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child-dat ‘clown’-[default C_A]-prn

‘The man and the child talk to each other about the clown.’ OR ‘The man and the child discuss the clown.’

Malihá ňu kši’la.

‘talk’-[default C_A]-RCP-fac-obs pa/neu-ind ‘clown’-[default C_A]-prn

‘They talk about the clown (with somebody else).’ OR ‘They discuss the clown( with somebody).’

Malihá ňuxadřa kši’la.

‘talk’-[default C_A]-RCP-fac-obs pa/neu-ind-SBS₁/1 ‘clown’-[default C_A]-prn

‘They talk to each other about the clown.’ OR ‘They discuss the clown.’

If necessary to specify that the reciprocity is of a “back (and forth)” nature, where first one party initiates an action which is subsequently paralleled back to the first party, one should utilize ITC aspect (see Sec. 5.6.34). Furthermore, one can use the ITN affix and/or Phase to provide additional detail if necessary. Additionally, the SWR affix can be utilized to specify that a referenced formative is the same as one of the reciprocal parties, e.g.,

Malihá lalecu welü lalecë’iča.

‘talk’-[default C_A]-RCP-fac-obs ‘person’-[default C_A]-gid₁/3-ind [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child-dat ‘person’-[default C_A]-gid₁/3-SWR₁/5-prn

‘The man and the child talk to each other about the man.’ [i.e., the man being talked about is the same man who is talking with the child].

5.1.5

CPL

The Complementary

The complementary valence indicates that the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, The clown read the children a story, My back itches so I scratch it, where ‘played catch’ implies the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, ‘read’ implies a reader and an audience, and ‘itches’ implies scratching.

Švelëihá elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-CPL-fac-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are playing on the floor.’ [they are playing a coplementary game/activity with each other, where one performs one half/side of the activity and the other performs the other half]

5.1.6

DUP

The Duplicative

The duplicative valence indicates that the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else is buying a new car, too).

Švelöhá wesu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-DUP-fac-obs [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are playing on the floor.’ [where one child performs a play activity and the second child then copies/duplicates the same activity]

5.1.7

DEM

The Demonstrative

The demonstrative valence indicates that the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what to do. Thus an Ithkuil sentence constructed as We played chess with the verb in the demonstrative valence would mean ‘I showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

Švelohá elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-DEM-fac-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are on the floor and one is showing the other how to play (a game).’

5.1.8

CNG

The Contingent

The contingent valence indicates that the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ithkuil sentence I started the campfire for my friend in the contingent implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked the food.

Švelühá elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-CNG-fac-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are playing on the floor and one performs one part of the play activity, then the other performs the next part.’

5.1.9

PTI

The Participative

The participative valence indicates that the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence They raced in the participative means ‘They each took part in the race.’

Šveluhá elasu ukthili’a.

‘play’-csv-[default C_A]-PTI-fac-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-dpx-ind stem3/prc-‘floor’-obj-[default C_A]-loc

‘Two children are on the floor taking part in the play activity.’

5.2 Mood

Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

In New Ithkuil, moods simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance is certain or uncertain, combined with a three-way distinction as to whether the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, or unknown. This twofold by threefold matrix renders a total of six moods: the factual, subjunctive, assumptive, speculative, counterfactive, and hypothetical, explained below.

Mood is shown via the C_N affix in Slot VIII, immediately following the V_N affix. Note that this is the same affix that shows Case-Scope in nominal formatives (i.e., nouns), as already described in Sec. 4.10. The determination as to whether a formative is a noun or verb can be made by its syllabic stress pattern. For our purposes here, verbal formatives where the C_N affix in Slot VIII shows Mood will always be stressed on the final syllable of the word. This is explained in detail in Sec. 6.2.1 on Relation.

5.2.1

FAC

The Factual

The factual mood is the default mood and is unmarked if Slot VIII is otherwise unfilled/unmarked. Otherwise, it is marked by the C_N affix -h- in Slot VIII. The factual mood signifies that the factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. Examples:

Yuçká elari.

prx-stem3/prc-‘suffer.from.illness’-FAC-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-g-aff

‘Their kids are ill’. [i.e., it is known he has kids and it is known they are ill]

Hlešvie-galoktähá pra’i.

concatenated/[default C_A]:stem2/prc-‘self-involved.leisure.activity’-pur+parent:‘ambulation’-[default C_A]-tpp₁/7-prl-FAC-obs ma/ben+1m/ben-act

‘She and I are (planning on) taking a walk later on’. [i.e., it is our intention and we have the opportunity to do so]

Webglá afbalfa umflilacai pei.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘be.inside-out’-FAC-obs prc-‘article.of.clothing’-aso/mdc-thm stem3/prc-‘spouse’-obj-[default C_A]-gid₁/1-pos ma/ben-gen

‘His wife’s clothes are inside-out.’

5.2.2

SUB

The Subjunctive

The subjunctive mood is marked by the C_N affix -hl- in Slot VIII. It indicates that the factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition is true. Examples:

Yuçkahlá elari.

prx-stem3/prc-‘suffer.from.illness’-SUB-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-g-aff

‘Maybe his kids are ill.’ [i.e., it is known that he has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

Hlešvie-galoktählá pra’i.

concatenated/[default C_A]:stem2/prc-‘self-involved.leisure.activity’-pur+parent:‘ambulation’-[default C_A]-tpp₁/7-prl-SUB-obs ma/ben+1m/ben-act

‘She and I may take a walk later on.’ [i.e., it is known that the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose to]

Webglahlá afbalfa umflilacai pei.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘be.inside-out’-SUB-obs prc-‘article.of.clothing’-aso/mdc-thm stem3/prc-‘spouse’-obj-[default C_A]-gid₁/1-pos ma/ben-gen

‘His wife’s clothes may be inside-out.’

5.2.3

ASM

The Assumptive

The ASSUMPTIVE mood is marked by the C_N affix -hr- in Slot VIII. It functions identically to the FACTUAL except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

Yuçkahrú elari.

prx-stem3/prc-‘suffer.from.illness’-ASM-inf stem2/prc-‘child’-g-aff

‘His kids’ll be ill OR If he has kids, they are ill.’ [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, but if he does, they are certainly ill.]

Hlešvie-galoktährá pra’i.

concatenated/[default C_A]:stem2/prc-‘self-involved.leisure.activity’-pur+parent:‘ambulation’-[default C_A]-tpp₁/7-prl-ASM-obs ma/ben+1m/ben-act

‘She and I will take a walk later on’ [i.e., if we can] OR ‘We intend to take a walk’. [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]

Webglahrû afbalfa umflilacai pei.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘be.inside-out’-ASM-itu prc-‘article.of.clothing’-aso/mdc-thm stem3/prc-‘spouse’-obj-[default C_A]-gid₁/1-pos ma/ben-gen

‘If he has a wife her clothes are inside-out.’

NOTE: In the examples immediately above, an astute reader will notice that in addition to the shift in Mood to assumptive, the Validation of the verb (see Sec. 6.1.2) may have to change as well — since the factuality of the underlying assumption is now suspect, the basis for the speaker’s knowledge of the event is not their own empirical observation, but rather becomes based on intuition, inference, etc., which must be reflected by the Validation category. This is true for the remaining three Moods as well.

5.2.4

SPC

The Speculative

The speculative mood is marked by the C_N affix -hm- in Slot VIII. It indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ Compare the examples below to those above:

Yuçkahmû elari.

prx-stem3/prc-‘suffer.from.illness’-SPC-itu stem2/prc-‘child’-g-aff

‘Maybe his kids are ill.’ [i.e., it is unknown if he has kids but if he does, they may be ill]

Hlešvie-galoktähmû pra’i.

concatenated/[default C_A]:stem2/prc-‘self-involved.leisure.activity’-pur+parent:‘ambulation’-[default C_A]-tpp₁/7-prl-SPC-itu ma/ben+1m/ben-act

‘She and I may take a walk later on.’ [i.e., it is unknown whether we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether we will choose to]

Webglahmû afbalfa umflilacai pei.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘be.inside-out’-SPC-itu prc-‘article.of.clothing’-aso/mdc-thm stem3/prc-‘spouse’-obj-[default C_A]-gid₁/1-pos ma/ben-gen

‘If he has a wife her clothes may be inside-out.’

5.2.5

COU

The Counterfactive

The counterfactive mood is marked by the C_N affix -hn- in Slot VIII. It indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

Yuçkahnú elari.

prx-stem3/prc-‘suffer.from.illness’-COU-inf stem2/prc-‘child’-g-aff

‘His kids would be (would have been) ill.’ [i.e., if he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t]

Hlešvie-galoktähnû pra’i.

concatenated/[default C_A]:stem2/prc-‘self-involved.leisure.activity’-pur+parent:‘ambulation’-[default C_A]-tpp₁/7-prl-COU-itu ma/ben+1m/ben-act

‘She and I would take (would have taken) a walk later on.’ [i.e., it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity]

Webglahnú afbalfa umflilacai pei.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘be.inside-out’-COU-inf prc-‘article.of.clothing’-aso/mdc-thm stem3/prc-‘spouse’-obj-[default C_A]-gid₁/1-pos ma/ben-gen

‘If he were to have a wife her clothes would be inside-out.’

5.2.6

HYP

The Hypothetical

The hypothetical mood is marked by the C_N affix -hň- in Slot VIII. It indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself would nevertheless be uncertain even if the underlying presupposition were true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

Yuçkahňú elari.

prx-stem3/prc-‘suffer.from.illness’-HYP-inf stem2/prc-‘child’-g-aff

‘His kids might’ve been ill.’ [i.e., if he had kids, but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know]

Hlešvie-galoktähňû pra’i.

concatenated/[default C_A]:stem2/prc-‘self-involved.leisure.activity’-pur+parent:‘ambulation’-[default C_A]-tpp₁/7-prl-HYP-itu ma/ben+1m/ben-act

‘She and I might’ve taken a walk later on.’ [i.e., but we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].

Webglahňú afbalfa umflilacai pei.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘be.inside-out’-HYP-inf prc-‘article.of.clothing’-aso/mdc-thm stem3/prc-‘spouse’-obj-[default C_A]-gid₁/1-pos ma/ben-gen

‘If he were to have a wife her clothes might be inside-out.’ [i.e., but he doesn’t have a wife, so whether her clothes would or wouldn’t be wet is moot]

NOTE: In the above examples for both the counterfactive and the hypothetical moods, the Validation on the verbs could also be either unspecified or imaginary (see Sec. 6.1.2) depending on the whether the speaker wishes to emphasize the unreal nature of the statement or not.

5.2.7 The Mood + Case-Scoping Affix

As an alternative to using C_N in Slot VIII, the MCS affix is available to mark the five non-FAC moods or the five non-CCN Case-Scoping values. (See Chapter 7 on Affixes for details on the use of Slot V and Slot VII affixes and how to structure them.)

-bẓ	MCS Mood and Case-Scoping
1	SUB subjunctive Mood
2	ASM assumptive Mood
3	SPC speculative Mood
4	COU counterfactive Mood
5	HYP hypothetical Mood
6	CCA antecedent case-scope
7	CCS subaltern case-scope
8	CCQ qualifier case-scope
9	CCP precedent case-scope
0	CCV successive case-scope

5.3 Phase

Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of Extension, previously described in Sec. 3.4, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative pattern of a state, action or event. Phase is shown by the vocalic V_N affix value in Slot VIII. The nine V_N values showing Phase are different than those showing Valence above, i.e., showing Valence and Phase via the V_N affix value in Slot VIII are mutually exclusive, meaning that if Slot VIII shows Valence, it cannot show Phase, and vice-versa. (Note that it is possible to show either Valence or Phase on a formative by other means, as will be detailed in the Chapter on Adjuncts.) The nine Phases are punctual, iterative, repetitive, intermittent, recurrent, frequentative, fragmentative, vacillitative, and fluctuative, described below.

5.3.1

PUN

The Punctual

The punctual Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -ai- in Slot VIII. It describes an act, condition, or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •

Weždaihá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-PCT-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted a single short beeping sound.’

5.3.2

ITR

The Iterative

The iterative Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -au- in Slot VIII. It refers to a momentary or instantaneous event, like the punctual above, which repeats itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, the whole considered as a single event. Visual representation: • • • •

Weždauhá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-ITR-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted a series of short beeping sounds.’

5.3.3

REP

The Repetitive

The repetitive Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -ei- in Slot VIII. It refers to a relatively brief event of indeterminate or vague duration but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual representation: — — — —

Weždeihá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-REP-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted a series of long beeping sounds.’

5.3.4

ITM

The Intermittent

The intermittent Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -eu- in Slot VIII. It is similar to the iterative above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a punctual event, however, unlike the iterative, the duration of time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. Visual representation: • — • — • — •

Weždeuhá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-ITM-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted a repeating short beeping sound.’

5.3.5

RCT

The Recurrent

The recurrent Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -ëu- in Slot VIII. It is to the repetitive as the intermittent is to the iterative. It indicates a slow repetition of an event, where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. Visual representation: —— ——— ——— ——— —

Weždëuhá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-RCT-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted a repeating long beeping sound.’

5.3.6

FRE

The Frequentative

The frequentative Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -ou- in Slot VIII. It indicates an iterative occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, the whole considered as a single event. Examples would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short bursts of a jackhammer. Visual representation:—• • •— • • •— • • •— • • •

Weždouhá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-FRE-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted a repeating series of single beeping sounds.’

5.3.7

FRG

The Fragmentative

The fragmentative Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -oi- in Slot VIII. It indicates a random pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single event. Visual representation: ——• •— • • • ——• • —• • • • •—— • —• •

Weždoihá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-FRG-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted several random series of repeating short beeping sounds.’

5.3.8

VAC

The Vacillitative

The vacillitative Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -iu- in Slot VIII. It functions as a non-punctual counterpart to the fragmentative, i.e., with a pattern such visually illustrated as: — – – — — — – — – — —

Weždiuhá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-VAC-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted several random series of repeating long beeping sounds.’

5.3.9

FLC

The Fluctuative

The fluctuative Phase is shown by the V_N affix value -ui- in Slot VIII. It indicates a random pattern of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of birds in the wild, etc. Visual representation:—

— • • —— • — • •— ——• • — • • • —• •— —— • — • •

Wežduihá sstilomke.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sound.of.high-pitched.buzz/beep’-FLC-obs ‘device’-obj-[default C_A]-fgn₁/7-abs

‘The alien device (has) emitted a string of random short and long beeping sounds.’

5.4 Effect

The category of Effect indicates whether a formative is beneficial or detrimental to a particular party. There is also a neutral or “unknown” value for Effect that indicates neither benefit nor detriment. Effect is shown by the vocalic V_N affix value in Slot VIII. Effect may also be indicated using a -V_XC_S- affix, an affixual adjunct, or via a Referential. Absence of Effect is equivalent to Neutral Effect, i.e., no statement about the Effect is being made (e.g., because Effect is shown elsewhere in the sentence on a different formative or via a Referential or modular adjunct).

The nine V_N values showing Phase are different than those showing Valence or Phase above, i.e., showing Valence, Phase or Effect via the V_N affix value in Slot VIII are all mutually exclusive, meaning that if Slot VIII shows Effect, it cannot show Valence or Phase. (Note that it is possible to show either Valence or Phase or Effect on a formative by other means, as will be detailed in the Chapter on Adjuncts.) The nine Effects are described below, with examples of their use shown in Sec. 5.4.10.

5.4.1 1:BEN Beneficial to Speaker

beneficial to speaker Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -ia- (or -uä- if immediately preceded by a -y-) in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is of benefit to the first-person speaker of the sentence.

Kšilu jraliahá wonţla.

‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-ind ‘drive.vehicle’-[default C_A]-1:BEN-obs [default C_A]- stem0/prc-‘automobile’-thm

‘It’s the clown who’s driving the car.’ [which is good for me because it means I don’t have to drive, or because I can’t drive it. etc.]

5.4.2 2:BEN Beneficial to Addressee

beneficial to addressee Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -ie- (or -uë- if immediately preceded by a -y-) in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is of benefit to the addressee of the sentence, i.e., the party to whom the speaker of the sentence is speaking.

Yamţriehí chwadi’a.

prx-prc-‘rain’-[default C_A]-2:BEN-rpr ‘outdoors’-prx-loc

‘I’m told it’s raining outside.’ [which is good for you since you’re allergic to sunlight/forgot your sunscreen/etc. ]

5.4.3 3:BEN Beneficial to Third Party

beneficial to third party Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -io- (or -üä- if immediately preceded by a -y-) in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is of benefit to a third party other than the speaker or the addressee of the sentence.

Oërmöliohá wuřkoswu zvalau.

C_S-Root:itn₁/6-3:BEN-obs ‘own’-accessor:erg ‘dog’-[default C_A]-prp

‘The dog’s owner has returned.’

5.4.4 SLF:BEN Beneficial to Self

beneficial to self Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -iö- (or -üë- if immediately preceded by a -y-) in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is of benefit to the formative itself to which the affix is attached.

Wimbruswiöháu!

[default C_A]- stem2/cpt-‘compete.to.win’-accessor:ind-SLF:BEN-dec

‘Here’s the winner! / We have a winner!’

5.4.5 UNK Unknown Benefit

unknown benefit Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -eë- in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is either of unknown benefit or detriment to any party or that any benefit or detriment to a party is irrelevant or inapplicable.

Anzwiňeëhá wurmuxri’a.

prc-‘spherical.shape’-obj-var-UNK-obs [default C_A]-stem3/prc-‘house’-s24₁/9-loc

‘There’s a spheroidal object in the yard.’ [unknown whether this is something good or bad]

5.4.6 SLF:DET Detrimental to Self

detrimental to self Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -uö- (or -öë- if immediately preceded by a -w-) in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is detrimental to the formative itself to which the affix is attached.

Wimbraiduswöëháu!

[default C_A]- stem2/cpt-‘compete.to.win’-scs₂/1-accessor:ind-SLF:DET-dec

‘What a total loser!’

5.4.7 3:DET Detrimental to Third Party

detrimental to third party Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -uo- (or -öä- if immediately preceded by a -w-) in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is detrimental to a third party other than the speaker or the addressee of the sentence.

Yaçkörmuohá zvali.

prx-prc-‘illness’-itn₁/6-3:DET-obs ‘dog’-[default C_A]-aff

‘The dog’s illness has returned.’

5.4.8 2:DET Detrimental to Addressee

detrimental to addressee Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -ue- (or -ië- if immediately preceded by a -w-) in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is detrimental to the addressee of the sentence, i.e., the party to whom the speaker of the sentence is speaking.

Yamţruehí chwadi’a.

prx-prc-‘rain’-[default C_A]-2:DET-rpr ‘outdoors’-prx-loc

‘I’m told it’s raining outside.’ [which is bad for you since you don’t have an umbrella, are attending an outdoor event, etc.]

5.4.9 1:DET Detrimental to Speaker

detrimenal to speaker Effect is shown by a V_N affix value of -ua- (or -iä- if immediately preceded by a -w-) in Slot VIII. It indicates that the formative is detrimental to the first-person speaker of the sentence.

Kšilu jraluahá wonţla.

‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-ind ‘drive.vehicle’-[default C_A]-1:DET-obs [default C_A]- stem0/prc-‘automobile’-thm

‘It’s the clown who’s driving the car.’ [i.e., which is bad for me because I don’t want to be in a car with a clown driving]

5.5 Level

Level corresponds roughly to what is known as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -er and -est seen in great-greater-greatest, or alternately with the adverbs more and most, as well as their negative counterparts less and least. The New Ithkuil comparison schema is much more complex than those found in natural languages and is designed to eliminate various ambiguities that arise from those simpler schemata, as discussed below.

5.5.1 Ambiguity and Under-Specification in Natural Languages

The comparison schemata of natural languages tend to grossly under-specify the exact semantic nature of the comparison. A clear case of such under-specification can be seen in an English example sentence such as Jane is healthier. This sentence can mean any of the following:

1. Jane's state of health has improved, although she is still unwell.

2. Jane's state of health has improved so that now she is well (whereas before she was unwell).

3. Jane's state of health is even better than it previously was (i.e., she was healthy before, but is even healthier now).

4. Jane's state of health is not as poor as someone else's state of health (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).

5. Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, so that Jane can be considered healthy while the other is unwell.

6. Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, even though both can be considered healthy.

This ambiguity is not alleviated even when we specify a party to which Jane's health is being compared as in Jane is healthier than Sue, which can mean:

a) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's although both are unwell.

b) Jane's state of health is better than Sue's, so that Jane can be considered well while Sue is unwell.

c) Both Jane and Sue are healthy, but Jane's state of health is even better than Sue's.

d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).

This sort of ambiguity allows odd-sounding sentences such as Snow is warmer (e.g., than liquid nitrogen) to be perfectly grammatical. What is important to note about the above analysis is that the words healthier or warmer do not indicate in the actual context of usage whether a person is actually healthy or whether snow is actually warm. Rather English -er and -est (and more and most) as well as their negative counterparts (less and least) merely serve to indicate on a relative scale a relationship between two entities being compared (or where only one party is mentioned, in relationship to some unspecified standard or expectation). Additional statements are needed to clarify the actual context to determine where the entities fall on the quantitative "spectrum" or range of the particular quality or attribute pair in question, e.g., unhealthy <—> healthy.

The New Ithkuil comparison scheme inherently specifies such relative comparison while simultaneously specifying placement within the qualitative spectrum, so that ambiguity as to whether “healthier” means the person is well or unwell is eliminated.

5.5.2 Relative Versus Absolute Comparison

An additional aspect of New Ithkuil comparison is the concept of relative comparison versus absolute comparison. This is an important concept which impacts the truth value of a statement based upon context. Specifically, relative comparison allows for statements to be true within the narrow confines of the context-at-hand, whereas absolute comparison allows for statements to be true without reference to any specific context. This can be illustrated by the following examples.

a) Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky.

b) That highway is the fastest way into town.

Both of these sentences are true in certain pragmatic contexts and not true in others. For example, while Sirius is the most luminous star as seen from Earth, this is merely due to its relative nearness to Earth (8.4 light years) as compared to most other stars. There are thousands of known stars which are larger (and inherently more luminous) than Sirius but are much further away from Earth. So Sentence (a) is true in a relative context but false in an absolute context. Similarly the highway in Sentence (b) may be the fastest way in most conditions, but if there is a traffic jam or an accident blocking the highway, or if one has access to a private helicopter, then the statement would be false. Therefore, it is only true in a narrow context determined by the pragmatics of the moment it is spoken. New Ithkuil allows speakers to specify whether a comparison is to be interpreted within the context-at-hand (relative comparison) or as an absolute statement irrespective of the context-at-hand.

5.5.3 Comparison Operators (Levels)

There are nine comparison operators for the Ithkuil verb, called Levels, which specify the comparative relationship involved, e.g., same as, more than, less than, etc. Relative Level is shown by the vocalic V_N affix value in Slot VIII. The nine V_N values showing Phase are different than those showing Valence, Phase, or Effect above, i.e., showing Valence, Phase, Effect or Level via the V_N affix value in Slot VIII are all mutually exclusive, meaning that if Slot VIII shows Level, it cannot show Valence, Phase or Effect. (Note that it is possible to show these categories on a formative by other means, as will be detailed in the Chapter on Adjuncts.) The nine Effects are described below, with examples of their use shown in Sec. 5.5.4.

In interpreting the meaning of the various Levels, the terms used in the formulas below refer to the following X-M-(Y) model, where M represents a verb or an adjectival description, X is the "subject" of the verb, and Y is the standard being compared to.

Sue	dances as well as / dances better than / dances worse than etc.	Mary	OR	Sue	is as smart is smarter than is less smart than etc.	Mary
X	M	(Y)	OR	X	M	(Y)

Note that the meaning of each Level allows for an interpretation in which there is no Y term so that the standard of comparison is a previous state of X, e.g., the difference between Sue dances better than Mary versus Sue dances better than before.

Label	Name of Level	V_N affix value (relative comparison only)	Meaning
MIN	MINIMAL	-ao-	X M ’s at its least possible / X is at its least M possible
SBE	SUBEQUATIVE	-aö-	X M ’s less than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is less M than or = to Y / before
IFR	INFERIOR	-eo-	X M’s the least (or is the least M) within/among Y (or ever)
DFT	DEFICIENT	-eö-	X M ’s less than Y ( or than before) / X is less M than Y ( or than before)
EQU	EQUATIVE	-oë-	X M ’s the same as Y ( or as before) / X is as M as Y ( or as before)
SUR	SURPASSIVE	-öe-	X M ’s more than Y ( or than before) / X is more M than Y ( or than before)
SPL	SUPERLATIVE	-oe-	X M’s the most (or is the most M) within/among Y (or ever)
SPQ	SUPEREQUATIVE	-öa-	X M ’s more than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is more M than or = to Y / before
MAX	MAXIMAL	-oa-	X M ’s at its most possible / X is at its most M possible

The VN values in Slot VIII above can only show relative Level, not absolute Level. To show Absolute Level, use a LVL affix in Type-2 (see Chapter 7 on Affixes) in Slot V or VII of the formative.

-řž	LVL Alternate forms of Comparison Operators ( Levels) *
1	MIN	MINIMAL
2	SBE	SUBEQUATIVE
3	IFR	INFERIOR
4	DFC	DEFICIENT
5	EQU	EQUATIVE
6	SUR	SURPASSIVE
7	SPL	SUPERLATIVE
8	SPQ	SUPEREQUATIVE
9	MAX	MAXIMAL

The following affix is applied to the “Y” noun to which something is compared (the “than Y”). The “Y” noun is declined into the comparative case.

-mt	SCL Standards for Comparison for Use with Levels
1	where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y
2	where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y
3	where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y
4	where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y
5	where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y
6	where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y
7	where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y
8	where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown
9	where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is inapplicable or irrelevant

The exact nature of the comparison can be further specified by the following XCL affix, in order to explicitly reference an external standard or expectation of the quality being compared. The affix is applied to either the “X” noun bearing a LEVEL Comparison Operator or the “Y” noun to which something is compared (the “than Y”). The “Y” noun is declined into the comparative Case.

-çx	XCL External Standard for Comparison for Use with Levels
1	...although X (still) isn’t very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
2	...and where X now meets some external standard or expectation of M-ness
3	...and where X now exceeds some external standard or expectation of M-ness
4	...although neither X nor Y are very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
5	...and where both X and Y meet some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it
6	...and where both X and Y exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y exceeded it
7	...and where X’s degree of M-ness exceeds that of Y, but neither is (still) very M compered to some external standard or expectation of M-ness
8	...and where X now meets some external standard or expectation of M-ness and Y does not
9	...and where X now exceeds some external standard or expectation of M-ness and Y does not

Another important affix used with Levels is the COS affix to more exactly specify the nature of the comparison:

-lc	COS Comparison Specifications (Used with Levels )
1	“more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume
2	“harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort
3	“longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing
4	“better”/“worse” = quality / style
5	“more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = effort relative to outcome
6	“greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result
7	combination of 4, 5, and 6
8	combination of 1, 2, and 3
9	combination of 1 through 6

5.5.4 Examples of Level in Use

Hlellwoehú-alxwädé hla Siryus afthili’a elneda’o.

[default C_A]/concatenated- stem2/prc:‘be.bright’-SPL-rlt-parent:‘state.of.star.shining’-cte-prx-pup carrier ‘Sirius’ ‘sky’-obj-[default C_A]-loc stem2/prc-‘nighttime’-csv-prx-cnr

OR: Hlellwořžú-alxwädé hla Siryus afthili’a elneda’o.

[default C_A]-concatenated- stem2/prc:‘be.bright’-LVL₁/7 -rlt-parent:‘state.of.star.shining’-cte-prx-pup carrier ‘Sirius’ ‘sky’-obj-[default C_A]-loc stem2/prc-‘nighttime’-csv-prx-cnr

‘Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky.’ [speaking as a relative comparison]

Compare the above two sentences having relative comparison to the following sentence having absolute comparison:

Hlellwoiřžú-alxwädé hla Deneb afthili’a elneda’o.

[default C_A]-concatenated- stem2/prc:‘be.bright’-LVL₂/7 -rlt-parent:‘state.of.star.shining’-cte-prx-pup carrier ‘Deneb’ ‘sky’-obj-[default C_A]-loc stem2/prc-‘nighttime’-csv-prx-cnr

‘Deneb is the brightest star in the night sky.’ [speaking as an absolute comparison]

Wurçpethoëhá elaru wailue.

[default C_A]-stem3/prc-‘dance’-qua₁/3-EQU-obs stem2/prc-‘child’-g-ind g-stem.1/prc-‘adult.person’-cmp

‘The children dance as poorly as the adults.’

Wäšwelciçxöehâ walhaci walhecue.

[default C_A]-cpt-‘be.alive’-COS₁/3-XCL₁/4-SUR-rec [default C_A]-‘parent’s.sibling’-gid₁/1-aff [default C_A]-‘parent’s.sibling’-gid1/3-cmp

‘My aunt lived longer than my uncle although neither of them lived to old age .’

5.6 Aspect

Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance (as with Perspective in Sec. 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 36 aspects. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial phrases used in English.

Aspect is shown by the V_N vocalic affix in Slot VIII, but is immediately followed by a different C_N consonantal affix value than for Valence, Phase, Effect, or Level. It is this different set of C_N affix values which distinguish the 36 V_N Aspect affixes from the 36 V_N affixes associated with Valence, Phase, Effect, and Level. The alternate C_N affix values are as follows:

fac -h- becomes -w- or -y- asm -hr- becomes -hrw- cou -hn- becomes - hnw-

sub -hl- becomes -hw- spc -hm- becomes - hmw- hyp -hň- becomes -hňw-

The 36 Aspects are detailed below.

5.6.1

RTR

Retrospective

This aspect operates in conjunction with Extension (see Sec. 3.4) to create various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the delimitive, the retrospective implies that a state/act/event/situation is now over or completed, thus translating the simple past tense of English or certain restricted uses of the English prsent perfect forms ‘has been’ or ‘has done’ as in I’ve done it. When used with the proximal, the retrospective implies the state/act/event/situation was occurring in the past but may still be occurring in the present, translatable as ‘has been (doing) and may still be (doing)’. With nomic and abstract perspectives, it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the verb. See Sec. 5.7 below for further specific combinations of the retrospective with other Extensions or Aspects.

Arţtulawá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

prc-‘study’-dyn-RTR-obs stem3/prc-‘cousin’-obj-[default C_A]-gen/1m-ind stem2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin studied the Ithkuil language.’

Yellyawá urwale’ö

prx-stem2/prc-‘sing.a.song’-RTR-obs stem3/prc-‘hour’-[default C_A]-pro

‘There’s been singing going on for an hour.’

5.6.2

PRS

Prospective

Like the retrospective above, this aspect operates in conjunction with Extension to create various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the delimitive, the prospective translates the simple future tense of English. When used with the proximal, the retrospective implies the state/act/event/situation will be occurring in the future and may already be occurring in the present, translatable as ‘will be/do and may already be (doing)’. With nomic and abstract perspectives, it adds a sense of ‘and will always be (doing)’ to the verb. See Sec. 5.7 below for further specific combinations of the retrospective with other Extensions or Aspects.

Arţtuläwá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

prc-‘study’-dyn-PRS-obs stem3/prc-‘cousin’-obj-[default C_A]-gen/1m-ind stem2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin will study the Ithkuil language.’

Yellyäwá urwale’ö.

prx-stem2/prc-‘sing.a.song’-PRS-obs stem3/prc-‘hour’-[default C_A]-pro

‘The singing (you can hear now) will be going on for an hour.’

5.6.3

HAB

Habitual

This aspect conveys the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’. When combined with the retrospective aspect (from Sec. 5.6.1 above), the English ‘used to’ construction offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays. When combined with the prospective aspect (from Sec. 5.6.2 above), the translation becomes ‘will now be (doing)’. See Sec. 5.7 below for further specific combinations of the habitual with other Extensions or Aspects.

Arţtudewá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

prc-‘study’-dyn-prx-HAB-obs stem3/prc-‘cousin’-obj-[default C_A]-gen/1m-ind stem2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin is always studying the Ithkuil language.’

A yellyewá urwale’ö.

rtr prx-stem2/prc-‘sing.a.song’-HAB-obs stem3/prc-‘hour’-[default C_A]-pro

‘The singing used to go on for an hour.’

5.6.4

PRG

Progressive

This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle in Spanish.

Arţtudiwá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

‘study’-dyn-prx-PRG-obs Stem.3- ‘cousin’-obj-gen/1m-ind stem2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin is studying the Ithkuil language (right now).’

Yellyiwá.

prx-stem2/prc-‘sing.a.song’-PRG-obs

‘There’s singing going on (right now).’

5.6.5

IMM

Imminent

Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I think Carl is about to cry.

Mulëiwá ulhiliolu wiosaḑcä Iţkuil.

‘communicate.linguistic.message’-dyn-[default C_A]-IMM-obs stem3/prc-‘cousin’-obj-[default C_A]-gen/1m-ind stem2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-ins “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin is about to say something in the Ithkuil language.’

Wellyëiwá.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘sing.a.song’-IMM-obs

‘There’s singing about to begin.’ / ‘Someone is about to sing.’

5.6.6

PCS

Precessive

Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just saw a clown in the toy store.

Ẓalöwá li kšilëi arţtudëužči’a.

‘see.something’-[default C_A]-PCS-obs 1m/neu-aff ‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-stm prc-‘study’-dyn-prx-bmp₂/5-loc

‘I just saw a clown at the school.’

5.6.7

REG

Regulative

Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of the new bridge.

Erčudowá kšivo wiolastře.

stem2/prc- ‘corruption’-dyn-prx-REG-obs ‘clown’-obj-n-erg stem2/n-‘child’-dx2₁/1-abs

‘Clowns have been busy corrupting children everywhere.’

5.6.8

SMM

Summative

Translates English ‘...(have) already...’, as in The children have already chosen their clown costumes, or Mrs. Beastly already owns three donut shops. When negated, the English translation becomes ‘...not (as) yet...’, as in I haven’t yet decided which poison to use.

Älksolëubzuöřcüwá kširu.

cpt-‘eat/drink.foodstuff’-dyn/csv-[default C_A]-fea₂/5-amd₃/6-SMM-obs ‘clown’-obj-g-ind

‘The clowns have already finished eating breakfast.’

5.6.9

ATP

Anticipatory

This aspect translates English ‘...have yet to (begin) [verb](-ing)’, as in I’ve yet to meet him or She has yet to begin dancing. Note that due to the peculiarities of English, use of the ATP aspect can sometimes be translated into a negative English sentence, as shown by the varying traslations of the following example:

Alksolëubzuöřcuyá kširu.

prc-‘eat/drink.foodstuff’-dyn/csv-[default C_A]-fea₂/5-amd₃/6-ATP-obs ‘clown’-obj-g-ind

‘The clowns have yet to eat breakfast.’ / ‘The clowns haven’t yet eaten breakfast.’

5.6.10

RSM

Resumptive

Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh again.

Alksolëubzuöřcaiwá kširu.

prc-‘eat/drink.foodstuff’-dyn/csv-[default C_A]-fea₂/5-amd₃/6-RSM-obs ‘clown’-obj-g-ind

‘The clowns resumed eating breakfast.’ / ‘The clowns went back to eating breakfast.’

5.6.11

CSS

Cessative

Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ as in They stopped dancing at midnight.

Alksolëubzuöřcauwá kširu.

prc-‘eat/drink.foodstuff’-dyn/csv-[default C_A]-fea₂/5-amd₃/6-CSS-obs ‘clown’-obj-g-ind

‘The clowns stopped/ceased eating breakfast.’

5.6.12

PAU

Pausal

Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with her friends.

Alksolëubzuöřceiwá kširu.

prc-‘eat/drink.foodstuff’-dyn/csv-[default C_A]-fea₂/5-amd₃/6-PAU-obs ‘clown’-obj-g-ind

‘The clowns paused in eating breakfast.’

5.6.13

RGR

Regressive

Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The regressive should be distinguished from the resumptive above, which merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after recovering from his stroke.

Hlaçköé-yeřdö’e arţtudeuyá kšilu ažtwa’ra.

[default C_A]-concatenated:prc-‘illness’-pcr-parent:prx-stem2/prc-‘recuperate’-pcr ‘study’-dyn-prx-RGR-obs ‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-ind ‘poison’-g-prn

‘After recovering from an illness, the clown got back to studying poisons.’

5.6.14

PCL

Preclusive

Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.

Intxulëuwá waţlo wangwe.

stem2/cpt-‘swallow’-dyn-[default C_A]-PCL-obs [default C_A]-prc-‘bird’- erg [default C_A]-prc-‘worm’-abs

‘The bird swallowed the worm whole.’

5.6.15

CNT

Continuative

Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re still staring at me, Sam no longer loves you / Sam doesn’t love you anymore.

Allyilouwá.

prc-‘singing’-obj-[default C_A]-CNT-obs

‘There’s still the sound of singing going on.’ / ‘The sound of singing is still there.’

Airţtulawá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

prc/neg₁/4-‘study’-dyn-[default C_A]-CNT-obs Stem3/prc-‘cousin’-obj-[default C_A]-gen/1m-ind Stem.2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin no longer studies the Ithkuil language.’

5.6.16

ICS

Incessative

Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling on and on since last year.

Aḑxidaurhoiwá kšilu.

prc-‘communicative.vocal.utterance’-obj-prx-rlv₂/2-ICS-obs ‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-ind

‘The clown keeps prattling on and on.’

5.6.17

EXP

Experiential

Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis as in Was she ever tired.

Ẓaliuyéu si kšilëi arţtudëužči’a?

‘see.something’-[default C_A]-EXP-ver 2m/neu-aff ‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-stm prc-‘study’-dyn-prx-bmp₂/5-loc

‘Have you ever seen a clown at the school?’

5.6.18

IRP

Interruptive

Translates English ‘to get interrupted while X-ing’ or ‘to X only so far or so much before having to stop’, as in I had to/was forced to stop painting the portrait, or Myrtle tried to stop the clowns’ indoctrination of children.

Eňsmloduiwá itriloalö.

stem2/prc-‘fortune.telling’-dyn/csv-prx-IRP-obs stem2/cpt-‘approach’-obj-[default C_A]-1m/neu/ind-eff

‘The fortune-telling was interrupted by my arrival.’

5.6.19

PMP

Preemptive

Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’

Wimžiawêi ebštilu.

[default C_A]-stem2/cpt-‘sexual.relations’-PMP-usp stem2-‘priest’-obj-[default C_A]-ind

‘The priest finally lost his virginity.’

5.6.20

CLM

Climactic

Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’

Yepššiewáu žowiř.

prx-stem2/prc-‘feel.insulted’-CLM-dec 2m/det/erg+aff/1m/det

‘You have insulted me for the last time!’

5.6.21

DLT

Dilatory

Translates English ‘(be) long-delay(ed) in being/doing X’, as in They took their time in herding the cats, or Try to delay fixing the Clown Car as long as you can.

Ipţuläčřiowá rowaš.

stem2/cpt-‘seek’-dyn-[default C_A]- afm₁/2-DLT-obs 1m/ben/erg+thm/2m/neu

‘It certainly has taken me a long time to find you.’

5.6.22

TMP

Temporary

Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water.

Kšireriöwá arţtudëužči’a

‘clown’-obj-g-neg₁/3-TMP-obs prc-‘study’-dyn-prx-bmp₂/5-loc

‘The school is free of clowns for the time being.’

5.6.23

XPD

Expenditive

Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life worrying or He’s pining away.

Yujgleëwá bi.

prx-stem3/prc-‘feeling.of.futility.in.the.face.of.realizing.the.transience.and.seeming.meaninglessness.of.life.and.the.universe’-XPD-obs 3m/det/aff

‘He wastes his time pondering the futility and meaninglessness of existence.’

5.6.24

LIM

Limitative

Translates English ‘to be/do X (just) in time’ indicating an act/event that culminates an anticipatory context. Examples: We arrived just in time to see the launch, or The children barely submitted in time their entrance application to clown school.

Wütruöwá kru kširëuţcievčeö.

[default C_A]-stem3/cpt-‘go.away’-LIM-obs pa+1m/ben/ind ‘clown’-obj-g-eml₂/5-avs₃/2-rsl

‘We left just in time to avoid being turned into clowns.’

5.6.25

EPD

Expeditive

Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate in a hurry.

Wimžadřuowêi muyum.

[default C_A]-stem2/cpt-‘sexual.relations’-sbs₁/1-EPD-usp ma-ind+ind-ma

‘They had sex in a hurry.’

5.6.26

PTC

Protractive

Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. If used with the PUNCTUAL phase, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a long time coming.

Yamţruewá.

prx-prc-‘rain’-PTC-obs

‘It’s been raining for quite a while.’

5.6.27

PPR

Preparatory

Conveys that an action, state or event exists or takes place in advance of another. Translates English ‘to be/do X in advance’, ‘to be/do X in preparation for a future situation’. Examples: Mr. Blathermot set the traps for the clowns’ arrival, or Knowing his new bride was a stickler for hygiene, Adelbert performed his wedding night ablutions meticulously.

Yurcxuawá kširo wučra.

prx- stem2/prc-‘plan’-PPR-obs ‘clown’-obj-g-erg [default C_A]-stem3/prc-‘physical.attack’-thm

‘The clowns planned the attack in advance.’

5.6.28

DCL

Disclusive

Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and ‘be revealed that….’

Arţtularaowá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

prc-‘study’-dyn-[default C_A]-neg₁/1-DCL-obs stem3/prc-‘cousin’-obj-[default C_A]-gen/1m-ind stem2/prc/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘It turns out my cousin hasn’t studied the Ithkuil language at all.’

5.6.29

CCL

Conclusive

Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car or He drank to the point where he passed out.

Ätrulaöwá dře Hakšivé-Warswi’a.

cpt-‘translative.motion’-dyn-[default C_A]-CCL-obs 2p+1m/det-abs concatenated:‘clown’-obj-n-cor-parent:[default C_A]-prc-‘planet’-loc

‘We’ve ended up on the Clown Planet.’

5.6.30

CUL

Culminative

Similar to the conclusive above, but with a focus on the eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the conclusive aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.

Ätruleowá dře Hakšivé-Warswi’a.

cpt-‘translative.motion’-dyn-[default C_A]-CUL-obs 2p+1m/det-abs concatenated:‘clown’-obj-n-cor-parent:[default C_A]-prc-‘planet’-loc

‘We eventually wound up on the Clown Planet.’

NOTE: For a more thorough analysis of the distinction between culminative and conclusive aspect, see the discussion in Sec. 5.7 below.

5.6.31

IMD

Intermediative

Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ or ‘somewhere along the way….’

Trulüňzeöwá řu.

‘translative.motion’-dyn-[default C_A]-rnc₁/8-IMD-obs 1m/det-ind

‘Somewhere along the way I lost my way.’ [literally-speaking: i.e., I lost the ability to stay on a physical course of travel.]

Weryüňzeöwá řu.

[default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘determine.own.course.of.action’-rnc₁/8-IMD-obs 1m/det-ind

‘Somewhere along the way I lost my way.’ [figuratively-speaking: i.e., I lost my capacity for self-determination.]

5.6.32

TRD

Tardative

Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ ‘trail off,’ etc.

Yurplürnoëwá ři.

prx- stem3/prc-‘joie.de.vivre’-ltd₁/8-TRD-obs 1m/det-aff

‘My zest for life wanes as the years go by.’

5.6.33

TNS

Transitional

Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, as in I’m planning to take up golf.

Kšijöewá ulhiliolu ušvi’lei.

‘clown’-a-TRD-obs stem3/prc-‘cousin’-obj-[default C_A]-gen/1m-ind stem3/prc-‘pastime’-obj-[default C_A]-ess

‘My cousin has taken up clown-hood as a pastime.’

5.6.34

ITC

Intercommutative

Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling her.

Ẓadecboewá weluöhu kšilëi.

‘see’-prx-rsn₁/3-ITC-obs [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child’-slf:det-ind ‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-stm

‘The child couldn’t help but stare back at the clown with curiosity.’

5.6.35

MTV

Motive

Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns.

Ätrulöawái tru Hakšivé-Warswi’o!

cpt-‘translative.motion.away’-dyn-[default C_A]-MTV-dir 2p+1m/ben-ind concatenated:‘clown’-obj-n-cor-parent: [default C_A]-prc-‘planet’-all

‘Let’s head off to the Clown Planet!’

5.6.36

SQN

Sequential

This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, or The sheep died off from the disease.

Ämţtulöboawá amtfiluřt.

cpt-‘demonstrate.factuality.of.something’-dyn-[default C_A]-dev₁/6-SQN-obs prc-‘list’-obj-[default C_A]-inl₁/9(-thm)

‘I checked off each item on the list one by one.’

5.7 Conveying “Tense”-Like Information

It is natural for speakers of English or other Western languages to expect New Ithkuil morpholoy to provide equivalents to verb “tenses” such as past, present, future, as well as various “perfective” or “imperfective” aspectual forms, in order to denote when/where an act/event/state takes place on a progressive linear timeline in relation to either the contextual “present moment” or in relation to a second, separate act/event/state. Nevertheless, while New Ithkuil has morphology which does more or less convey such tense-like information, such morphology is generally optional and is usually unnecessary, as it is often either inferred by the contextual logic of the situation being described by the sentence, or, more importantly, is often irrelevant to an understanding of the semantic content of the sentence. Unlike Western languages whose grammars require that verbs denote a tense, sentences in New Ithkuil only specify such temporal information if it is genuinely necessary for the proper comprehension of the sentence’s context. If a sentence can convey its communicative point without the need for extraneous specification as to “when” it takes place, then no such temporal information is specified.

As an example, compare the following two similar Ithkuil sentences which differ only in the subtle choice between using conclusive aspect versus culminative aspect.

Ätrulaöwá dře Hakšivé-Warswi’a.

cpt-‘translative.motion’-dyn-[default C_A]-CCL-obs 2p+1m/det-abs concatenated:‘clown’-obj-n-cor-parent:[default C_A]-prc-‘planet’-loc

‘We’ve ended up on the Clown Planet.’

Ätruleowá dře Hakšivé-Warswi’a.

cpt-‘translative.motion’-dyn-[default C_A]-CUL-obs 2p+1m/det-abs concatenated:‘clown’-obj-n-cor-parent:[default C_A]-prc-‘planet’-loc

‘We eventually wound up on the Clown Planet.’

Notice that the translation of the first sentence utilizes the English “present perfect” tense (i.e., “have” + past participle) while the second sentence is translated using simple past tense. Yet the intralinear analysis of both New ithkuil sentences shows that neither one of them specifies any “tense” informtion whatsoever whether past, present, future, or any equivalent to Western “perfective” forms. So why the differing choices of tense when translating these two sentences into English?

In the absense of any morphology specifically denoting a temporal position along a progressive linear timeline, a New Ithkuil sentence is considered to be describing something as manifesting/taking place in the speaker’s (and addressee’s) contextual present moment. So the first sentence is indicating that at the present moment the speaker and addressee find themselves on the Clown Planet. However, the use of conclusive aspect indicates that the particular present state of affairs has arisen as the result of events during the short time immediately prior to the present moment. The English present perfect tense is convenient in conveying such a situation where the act/event/state in the present moment is a direct outcome of the immediately preceding short-term events (where those preceding short-term events can be considers part of a larger “present”-tense context.

In the second sentence, however, use of the culminative aspect implies that the present state of affairs is the outcome of a long drawn-out process or series of events extending back into the past, so that rather than the preceding events being short-term and considered part of a larger “present” context, here the present moment is seen as being part of a larger “past” context. Consequently, the semantics of the second New Ithkuil sentence are better translated into English using the past tense.

5.7.1 Combinations of Aspect, Extension, and Perspetive

Despite the discussion above explaining why conveying “tense”-like information in New Ithkuil is both optional and unusual, nevertheless, the language does provide morphology to do so, if necessary. The following Aspect + Extension or Aspect + Aspect combinations constitute formalized/conventionalized indicators of “tense”-like information on a verb:

RTR Aspect + DEL Extension = ‘has been / has done’

RTR Aspect + PRX Extension = ‘has been (doing) [and may still be (doing)]’

RTR Aspect + ICP Extension = ‘began to be’ / ‘began doing’

RTR Aspect + ATV Extension = ‘finished being / finished doing’

RTR Aspect + GRA Extension = ‘gradually developed into being/doing’

RTR Aspect + DPL Extension = ‘gradually stopped being/doing & is/does no longer

RTR Aspect + PCS Aspect = ‘just now finished being/doing’

RTR + HAB Aspects + DEL Extension = ‘used to be/do but no longer’

RTR + HAB Aspects + PRX Extension = ‘used to be/do and may still be (doing)’

PRS Aspect + DEL Extension = simple future tense

PRS Aspect + PRX Extension = ‘will be/do & may already be (doing)’

PRS Aspect + ICP Extension = ‘will begin to be’ / ‘will start doing’

PRS Aspect + ATV Extension = ‘will finish being/doing’

PRS Aspect + GRA Extension = ‘will develop into being/doing’

PRS Aspect + DPL Extension = ‘will gradually stop being/doing’

PRS Aspect + PCS Aspect = ‘just about to be/do’

PRS + RTR Aspects = ‘will have’ (e.g., By then he will have done it.)

PRS + HAB Aspects + DEL Extension = ‘will now be (doing) but not yet’

Example:

A arţtulewá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

RTR prc-‘study’-dyn-[default C_A]-DEL-HAB-obs stem3/prc-‘cousin’-obj-[default C_A]-gen/1m-ind stem2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin used to study the Ithkuil language, but no longer.’

5.7.2 The TPP and RTI Affixes

The TPP affix is available to specify a point or span on a past-present-future progressive timeline:

-kt	TPP* Temporal Position Relative to Present
1	in the remote past, once upon a time
2	past/former/previous; once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
3	recent; recently
4	. . . just past / just (happened)
5	present/current/present day; now / at present / presently / currently
6	imminent; just about to / about to / on the verge of
7	forthcoming / soon to arrive; soon
8	future / -- to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
9	in the remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone

Additionally, the RTI affix specifies when an event occurs relative to another event or relative to the contextual “present” of an utterance. This affix may be used on its own or in conjunction with the TPP affix to provide specific tense-like information. (See Chapter 7 on how to construct and use Affixes on a formative.)

-lt	RTI — Relative Timeline Indicator
1	X is/occurs after the relative/contextual present of a statement (as may be defined by TPP affix) but is considered completed or no longer applicable after-the-fact from the speaker’s present viewpoint. Note in the examples below how English translations of this affix may require use of a negative not present in the original: · Flowering plants had not yet* developed / were yet to develop during the Cambrian geological period* (but they have developed since). · The enemy’s code will still be unbroken / will have yet to be broken* by the time they attack us* (but it will be eventually broken) · The boy later realized / had not yet realized* the clown was lying about the Clown Planet* (but he realizes it now). (TPP/3)
2	X is/occurs after the relative/contextual present of a statement (as may be defined by TPP affix) and its occurrence is still outstanding/impacting the speaker’s present viewpoint. Note in the examples below how English translations of this affix may require use of a negative not present in the original: 1. Hurry! The bus is yet to depart* / has not yet departed.* (lack of TPP affix implies present context) · By leaving your seat just now to get a soda, you’ve missed (seeing)* / have not seen the magician do his disappearing act. (TPP/4) · The boy hasn’t (yet) realized the clown was lying about the Clown Planet.* (TPP/3)
3	X continues to occur or have an effect in the relative/contextual present or has begun during or prior to the relative/contextual present and will continue into the future of that same relative/contextual present, e.g., · She was (still) sleeping* when I left the apartment. (TPP/3 or TPP/4) · She’ll (still) be sleeping when I arrive. (TPP/6 or TPP/7) · Civilizations rise and fall but the Euphrates River keeps rolling along. (nomic or TPP/5) · I’ve been watching* TV all day. (lack of TPP affix implies present context) · *We’ll be watching* the apartment all night. (TPP/7)
4	X continues to occur or have an effect in the relative/contextual present or has begun during or prior to the relative/contextual present and will continue into the future of that same relative/contextual present, but does not continue into, or have a retrograde effect/impact on the speaker’s contextual present, e.g., · She was (still) sleeping* when I left the apartment. (TPP/3 or TPP/4) (but she’s no longer sleeping now) · She’ll (still) be sleeping when I arrive. (TPP/6 or TPP/7) (but she’s not sleeping yet) · I’ve been watching* TV all day. (lack of TPP affix implies present context) (but I’m not doing so now) · *We’ll be watching* the apartment all night. (TPP/7) (but we’re not doing so yet)
5	X has been/done so in the past and will again in the future, but not being/doing so at present, e.g., · the once-and-future* king* · I did it before* and I will do it again.*
6	X begins to be/occur before the relative/contextual present of a statement (as may be defined by TPP affix) and continues to be/occur during that same relative/contextual present but does not impact the speaker’s contextual present, e.g., · The band had started playing / The band was now playing (then, but no longer). · *The war will have begun. (TPP/6 or TPP/7) (then, but not now). · Dody the (one-and-only) sentient dinosaur (due to a freak mutation), had* watched the giant meteor approach her home, whose name 65 million years later would be Chicxulub, with a sense of dread. (TPP/1)
7	X begins to be/occur before the relative/contextual present of a statement (as may be defined by TPP affix) and continues to be/occur during that same relative/contextual present, e.g., · The band has started playing* / The band is now playing.* · *The war will have begun. (TPP/6 or TPP/7) · Dody the (one-and-only) sentient dinosaur (due to a freak mutation), watched the giant meteor approach her home, whose name 65 million years later would be Chicxulub, with a sense of dread.* (TPP/1)
8	X is/occurs before the relative/contextual present of a statement (as may be defined by TPP affix) and the consequences of its occurrence are still outstanding/impacting the speaker’s present viewpoint, e.g., · The bus had (already) departed* when/by the time I arrived.* (TPP/3) · The bus will have (already) departed* by the time I arrive.* (TPP/7)
9	X is/occurs before the relative/contextual present of a statement (as may be defined by TPP affix) but is considered completed or no longer applicable after-the-fact from the speaker’s present viewpoint, e.g., · The river had (already) dried up* when/by the time the settlers arrived.* (TPP/2 or TPP/3) · The Sun will have (already) gone nova* when/by the time we develop interstellar ships.* (TPP/8)

Example of the RTI affix:

Yiţxirňiexnalté wialmya.

prx-stem2/cpt-‘evolve’-epc₁/4-pze₃/2-RTI₁/1-pup [default C_A]-n-‘flowering.plant’-thm

‘Flowering plants had not yet developed / were yet to develop during the Cambrian geological period (but they have developed since).’

5.8 Moving the C_N–Pattern 1 Mood/Case-Scope affix to the Slot VI C_A Slot

If the V_NC_N affix values in Slot VIII shows default MNO Valence (-a-) and a Mood/Case-Scope other than FAC or CCN -h-, then V_N may be elided and the C_N affix may instead be shown in Slot VI (the C_A Slot) under the following circumstance: if C_A in Slot VI is default -l- (csl-upx-del-m-nrm), then the C_A in Slot VI may be replaced by the Mood/Case-Scope C_N affix, thus shortening the word by one syllable. Note that the C_N–Pattern 1 affix FAC/CCN -h- never moves to Slot VI because it instead elides whenever Slot VIII is zero-marked.

The following example shows the same formative with and without movement of the C_N–Pattern 1 affix from Slot VIII to Slot VI:

Äňvyulahlâ.

cpt-‘apply.varnish’-dyn-[default C_A]-mno-sub-rec

‘Varnish might’ve been applied.’ / ‘It might be varnished.’

Äňvyuhlâ.

cpt-‘apply.varnish’-dyn-sub-rec

‘Varnish might’ve been applied.’ / ‘It might be varnished.’

Introduction	4 Case Morphology	8 Adjuncts	12 The Writing System
1 Phonology	5 Verb Morphology	9 Referentials	13 Numbers
2 Morpho-Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	10 Special Constructions	14 The Lexicon
3 Basic Morphology	7 Affixes	11 Syntax	Appendices