A GRAMMAR OF NEW ITHKUIL

A CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE

Introduction	4 Case Morphology	8 Adjuncts	12 The Writing System
1 Phonology	5 Verb Morphology	9 Referentials	13 Numbers
2 Morpho-Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	10 Special Constructions	14 The Lexicon
3 Basic Morphology	7 Affixes	11 Syntax	Appendices

7.0 AFFIXES

Up to this point, the morpho-phonological Slots of formative have each contained a mandatory affix (although some of these affixes can be elided in certain circumstances). However, Slots V and VII are different, in that they contain optional affixes which can be agglutinated (i.e., multiple affixes sequentially strung together).

Standard Slot Structure of a Formative

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
(CC	VV )	CR	VR	(CSVX...)	CA	(VXCS...)	(VN CN )	VC / VK	[stress]
Concatenation status indicator	Version + Stem	Main Root	Function + Specification + Context	VXCS affix(es) apply to stem but not to CA Form is -CSVX- (i.e., reversed from standard Slot VII VXCS form)	Configuration + Extension + Affiliation + Perspective + Essence	VXCS affixes apply to stem + CA	Valence + Mood/Case-Scope or Aspect + Mood/Case-Scope or Phase + Mood/Case-Scope or Level + Mood/Case-Scope or Effect + Mood/Case-Scope	Case or Format or Illocution + Validation as determined by Slot X syllabic stress	penultimate stress = unframed Relation + VC ultimate stress = unframed Relation + VK antepenultimate stress = framed Relation + VC
consonantal form consisting of either a glottal stop or a form beginning with -h-.	vocalic affix	cons. form	vocalic affix	consonant + vowel	if Slot V is filled, CA is geminated	vowel + consonant	Modular Slot containing a vowel-form + consonant-form	vocalic affix

The phonological format of Slot V and Slot VII affixes comprises a vocalic increment V_X plus a consonantal increment C_S to give a format of V_XC_S. The consonantal C_S component never changes, however the V_X vocalic component consists of an array of thirty different vowel-forms, by which the affix creates a complex matrix of different types and degrees, explained and illustrated in the sub-sections below.

degree	Type-1	Type-2	Type-3
1	a	ai	ia / uä
2	ä	au	ie / uë
3	e	ei	io / üä
4	i	eu	iö / üë
5	ëi	ëu	eë
6	ö	ou	uö / öë
7	o	oi	uo / öä
8	ü	iu	ue / ië
9	u	ui	ua / iä
0	ae	ea	üo

No C_S form can contain a glottal-stop or begin with h-, nor can the following specific consonant-forms occur as C_S: -w-, -y-, -ç-, -ļ-, -ļw-, or -ļy-. Additionally, no geminated consonant can be a C_S form.

7.0.1 Degree 0: The last row of values in the table above is termed “Degree Zero”, indicating an unspecified degree and refers to the affix’s general semantic concept as a whole. Note that even though a Degree Zero form technically exists for all affixes, not all affixes will utilize it if the semantics of the particular affix do not make for a coherent interpretation of a Degree Zero value.

7.0.2 C_A stacking: The specialized -V_X value, -üö, is used to indicate that the subsequent -C_S consonant-form is to be interpreted as a C_A complex having scope over (i.e., stacked upon) the Slot VI C_A complex of the stem (see Sec. 3.6 for an explanation of the C_A complex).

7.1 V_XC_S Affix Degree and Gradient-Type

All V_XC_S affixes have nine different degrees (plus a “degree-less” “zero” form). The nine degrees are used to create a range or gradient-like spectrum of meanings of seven different types. For the purposes of grammatical notation, the degree of an affix is shown as a number 0 through 9 with a preceding slash, immediately following the V-marker (with its affix-type shown as a subscript) and the specific C_S consonantal form, V_XC_S/#, e.g., -V₂g/7. The gradient types are explained below.

· Gradient Type 0 (Zero): No gradient pattern. The nine degrees of the affix do not manifest any particular hierarchical semantic gradient. Affixes of Gradient Type 0 are either a single sibilant (whether a fricative or affricate), a sibilant + stop, a sibilant + fricative (other than -ç-, -x-, or -h-), or a bi-consonantal form ending in a sibilant, e.g., -s, -č, -sk, -gz, -jd. An example of a Gradient Type Zero affix is -sp shown below.

-sp	NEW Newness/Revision
1	new = original + new, i.e., never before seen
2	new = never before seen within current context, e.g., a new student
3	new = role, i.e., never functioning/existing in this capacity/manner before
4	new/other = replacement + new
5	new/other = additional instance + new
6	new/other = revision + additional
7	new/other = revision + replacement
8	new/other/different = different, not seen/used before within current context; status as addition or replacement is unknown or inapplicable
9	new/other/different = different + new; status as addition or replacement is unknown or inapplicable

· Gradient Type A1: A bivalent zero-to-one gradient. Degree 1 signifies one extreme of a gradient spectrum/range of meaning (whether minimal or maximal) while Degree 9 signifies the other extreme (whether minimal or maximal). Degrees 2 through 8 cumulatively add (or subtract) an amount of the concept associated with the affix. Gradient Type A1 affixes consist of a a bi- or tri-consonantal form beginning with -r or -ř, e.g., -rt, -řn, -rks. An example of a Gradient Type A1 affix is -rļ shown below.

-rļ	FAM Degree Of Familiarity
1	unknowable / alien; unable to even try X-ing
2	totally unfamiliar, utterly strange; totally unaccustomed to X-ing
3	unfamiliar, strange; unaccustomed to X-ing
4	somewhat unfamiliar; somewhat unaccustomed to X-ing
5	just becoming familiar, just getting to know; just getting used to X-ing
6	somewhat familiar; somewhat accustomed to X-ing
7	familiar/known; accustomed to X-ing
8	well-known / utterly familiar with / ingrained; inherently accustomed or used to X-ing
9	intimate with; intimately involved with / intimately accustomed to

· Gradient Type A2: A bivalent “zero-to-one” spectrum-like gradient like Type A1 where Degrees 1 and 9 convey sufficiency connotations of “too little X” and “too much X”. Gradient Type D affixes consist of or end in -h (except -rh and -řh, which are Type A1). An example of a Gradient Type A2 affix is -mh shown below.

-mh	FLS Degree of Fluctuation/Stability
1	too unstable / too random
2	unstable / highly variable/random fluctuation or instability
3	moderately variable/random fluctuation or instability
4	increasing fluctuation or destabilization in pattern
5	tending toward fluctuations and periods of instability
6	decreasing fluctuation or instability in pattern = increasing stability
7	moderately stable and lacking in fluctuations
8	complete lack of fluctuation or instability; highly stable, steadfast
9	too stable

· Gradient Type B: A “three-by-three” gradient pattern. Degrees 1 through 3 signify a spectrum or range involving one sub-parameter, Degrees 4 through 6 signify the same spectrum/range under a different sub-parameter, and Degrees 7 through 9 signify the same spectrum/range under a third sub-parameter. Gradient Type B affixes consist of at least two consonants and always begin or end with -ç-. An example of a Gradient Type B affix is -çţ shown below.

-çţ	RPN Pattern of Spatio-Temporal Repetition or Distribution of Set Members
1	slow-paced repetition at regular intervals
2	slow-paced repetition at irregular intervals
3	slow-paced repetition at mixed intervals
4	mid-paced repetition at irregular intervals
5	mid-paced repetition at regular intervals
6	mid-paced repetition at mixed intervals
7	fast-paced repetition at mixed intervals
8	fast-paced repetition at irregular intervals
9	fast-paced repetition at regular intervals

· Gradient Type C: A “one-by-two” or “oscillating” gradient. Degree 1 represents one extreme of a spectrum/range which increases/decreases to the other extreme of the spectrum/range usually represented by Degree 4, while Degrees 6 through 9 cycle back through the same values but with a different sub-parameter operating orthogonally to Degrees 1 through 4. Degree 5 usually represents a neutral or meta-level value associated with the semantic concept of the affix. Gradient Type C affixes consist of or end in -ř. An example of a Gradient Type C affix is -nř shown below.

-nř	AGN Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness
1	with the anticipated max. resulting effect possible
2	with the anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
3	with the anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
4	with the anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or barely noticeable degree
5	with no noticeable effect or resulting change
6	with only marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
7	with moderate effect or resulting change — unanticipated
8	with the resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
9	with the max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated

· Gradient Type D1: A trivalent “-1 to zero to +1” gradient. Degrees 1 and 9 represent opposite (or complementary) extremes of a spectrum/range while Degree 5 (sometimes Degree 4 or 6) represents a “mid-point” signifying a standard, normal, commonplace, neutral, zero, or baseline value. This is the most common type of affix. Any consonant-form that does not phonologically conform to the other types is a Gradient Type D1 affix. An example of a Gradient Type Zero affix is -lţ shown below.

-lţ	SQT Sequence Relative to Present Context
1	the former; primarily
2	two before preceding
3	one before preceding
4	immediately beforehand / the preceding / first (of two)
5	current/at hand; now/currently / at the moment [in sequence of events]
6	next / following; then / next
7	one after next
8	second one after next
9	the latter; secondarily

· Gradient Type D2: A trivalent “-1 to zero to +1” gradient like Type D1 where Degrees 1 and 9 convey sufficiency connotations of “too little X” and “too much X”, where the operating sufficiency parameter is excessivesness (or the lack thereof). Gradient Type D2 affixes either end in (or consist of) -x, or consist of two or more consonants ending in -m. An example of a Gradient Type D2 affix is -km shown below.

-km	TME Degree Of Timeliness (renamed from LAT)
1	too early / too soon
2	(quite) early
3	a little early / a bit soon
4	almost late / not a moment too soon / none too soon
5	just in time / sharp / on the dot
6	slightly late but not enough to make a difference
7	a little late
8	late / just missed it
9	too late / you missed it

7.2 V_XC_S Affix Type

Each V_XC_S affix comes in three types, numbered 1, 2, and 3, indicated by variances in the initial vocalic component of the suffix. For the purposes of grammatical notation, the degree of an affix is shown as a subscript to the vocalic V-marker of an affix (i.e., it replaces the subscript-x in the notation V_XC_S, e.g., -V₂g/7).

Use of the Type-1 version of a suffix caries a mere circumstantial meaning applicable to the context at hand in a subjectively incidental, happenstance, temporary, or informal manner, whereas the Type-2 version of a suffix implies a derivational meaning which can entail lexical differences when translating into English.

For example, the Type-1 suffix -urx, i.e., -V₁rx/9, and its Type-2 counterpart -uirx , i.e., -V₂rx/9, which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/indistinguishable from/identical…,’ the difference in usage being that the Type-1 suffix conveys merely a circumstantial or incidental similarity, while the Type-2 suffix implies that the similarity is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word wal ‘person’: walurx means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas waluirx means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say that the suffix -Vrx with Type-1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type-2 vocalic infixes it conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts or words are derived from the stem).

As for Type-3 suffixes, these are used in circumstances where the meaning of the suffix is meant to be applied not to the formative itself, but rather to the immediately adjacent suffix. This is somewhat analogous to the way that adverbs can be used to modify descriptive adjectives in English. For example, in the phrase ‘suddenly blue sky’, it is the blueness that is sudden, not the sky. In Ithkuil, Type-3 affixes modify another affix (usually the one following, unless there are only two suffixes on the stem, in which case the affix order is irrelevant); this is done by using Type-3 vocalic infixes. For example, the affix -Vcč/7, which means ‘made-up, imaginary,’ can be used both circumstantially (using the Type-1 infix) and derivationally (using the Type-2 infix) to modify a stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using the Type-3 infix). Such suffixes must immediately precede the suffix they are modifying, unless they are in word-final position, in which case they modify the immediately preceding suffix. This is illustrated below:

Type-1 affix: walocča: ‘a made-up/imaginary person’

Type-2 affix: waloicča: ‘a fictional person’ (i.e., a character from a work of fiction)

Type-3 affix: waluocčox: ‘a person who is imagined to be large’ (where suffix -V₁x/7 = ‘large’)

The following example illustrates the use of a Type-2 affix modified by a Type-3 affix to create the concept of ‘breakfast’, analyzable literally as “formal/conventionalized instance of morning-time eating/drinking of foodstuff”:

Alksodëubzuöřcá kšilu.

‘eat/drink.foodstuff’-dyn-csv-prx-fea₂/5-amd₃/6-obs ‘clown’-obj-ind

‘The clown is eating breakfast.’

7.3 Glottal Stop Requirements

There are two situations in which a glottal stop must be inserted into a formative in order to avoid confusion caused by the V_XC_S affixes in Slot V. These are described below.

7.3.1 Using Slot II to Foreshadow the Presence of Multiple Affixes in Slot V

When Slot V of a formative contains more than one C_SV_X- or -V_XC_S- affix, it becomes a problem whether to interpret the consonant forms as C_S forms or a C_A form until the eventual “arrival” of the end-of-Slot-V marker. Therefore, it is necessary to signal early on whether Slot V of a formative will contain more than one C_SV_X- or -V_XC_S- affix. To do so, insert a glottal-stop into the V_V-form of Slot II per the rules in Sec. 2.2.

7.3.2 Showing the End of Slot V in the Absence of a Slot VI C_A form

For formatives containing any Slot V V_XC_S affix(es) where the Slot VI C_A form has been elided (see Sec. 3.10 on “short-cut” formatives), the end of Slot V is instead shown by inserting a glottal-stop into the V_X form of the final Slot V V_XC_S affix. This glottal-stop is inserted per the rules in Sec. 2.2. (NOTE: if such a Slot V glottal-stop is present and Slot I shows the word has a Slot IV/VI Shortcut, then the V_C shortening rule from the Special Note in Sec. 4.6 cannot be used.)

7.4 Slot V Affixes versus Slot VII Affixes

There is a difference between Slots V versus Slot VII affixes in terms of the phonological structure of the affix, as well as a difference in the semantic scope of the affix over the rest of the formative. This is explained as follows:

· Slot V affixes: If a C_A complex is present in Slot VI of the formative, any Slot V affixes are shown in reversed form: -C_SV_X-; however, if the Slot IV V_R and Slot VI C_A complex have been elided as indicated by Slot I (see Sec. 3.10 on “short-cut” formatives), then any Slot V affixes are shown in the standard form -V_XC_S-. As detailed earlier in Sec. 3.6.1, the presence of a Slot V affix requires any Slot VI C_A complex to be geminated.

ALSO: The semantic scope of any Slot V affixes applies only to the formative Stem, not to its Slot VI C_A affix-complex (i.e., the various meanings of the C_A affix-complex are applied to the formative stem AFTER the stem has first been modified by its Slot V affixes).

· Slot VII affixes are shown in standard form -V_XC_S- form, and apply to both the stem AND its C_A affix-complex (i.e., the meanings of the C_A affix-complex are applied to the formative stem first, then the resulting stem+C_A complex is then modified by any Slot VII affixes). Note that in the absence of any Slot V affix(es), the presence of any Slot VII affix(es) does not trigger the gemination of any Slot VI C_A complex.

The following example illustrates the difference between placing the V_XC_S affix V₁x/7 affix -ox (meaning ‘large in size’) in Slot V versus Slot VII:

Slot V: rraxoţţ ‘a group of large but (otherwise) dissimilar cats’ Slot VII: rraţox ‘a large group of dissimilar cats’

7.5 List of V_XC_S Affixes

While Sec. 9.1 above offered a small sample of the different kinds of V_XC_S affixes, there are in fact several hundred different V_XC_S affixes. They are listed in a separate Affixes document.

7.6 Case-Accessor, Inverse Case-Accessor, and Case-Stacking Affixes

The concept of Case-Accessor, Inverse Case-Accessor, and Case-Stacking affixes was introduced in Sec. 4.11. Because they superficially share the same phonological structure as V_XC_S affixes, and occupy Slots V and VII the same as V_XC_S affixes, we have waited until now to present the full list of such affixes and their phonological structure.

TRANSRELATIVE CASES		VX	DESCRIPTION OF CASE	Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix	Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix
1	thm thematic	a	The (usually inanimate) party which is a participant to the verbal predicate which does not undergo any tangible change of state. Semantic role: CONTENT.	party acting as the theme/content of X	that of/for which X functions as the theme/content
2	ins instrumental	ä	The entity acting as means utilized by an explicit or implicit agent to implement/carry out the effect/impact of an act/event. Semantic role: INSTRUMENT.	the instrument/means by/via which X occurs	that by/via which X is the instrument/means
3	abs absolutive	e	The party that/who is the target of, and/or undergoes, the effect/impact or change of state as a result of a tangible act/event. Semantic role: PATIENT.	the patient to which/whom X happens	that which happens/is done to the patient X
4	aff affective	i	The party who undergoes an unwilled, affective experience, e.g., coughing, sneezing, feeling hot/cold, trembling, experiencing sensory input (tactile, olfactory, visual, aural, gustatory), proprioceptive states, psychological/emotional states, reflex reactions such as cringing, yawning, ducking, screaming in fright, etc. Semantic role: EXPERIENCER.	the experiencer or undergoer of X (as an affective experience)	that which the X undergoes as an affective experience
5	stm stimulative	ëi	The party/entity/idea/thought/situation or mental state which triggers an unwilled, affective response or is the trigger for an existential state such as possession.^2 Semantic role: STIMULUS.	that which is the affective stimulus of X	that of/for which X is the affective stimulus
6	eff effectuative	ö	The party/force that initiates a chain of causal events or who induces another party to act as an agent (specifiable via the ENB affix). Role: ENABLER	the enabler initiating an event chain leading to X	the event (chain) that the enabler X initiates
7	erg ergative	o	The animate party or inanimate force which initiates/causes an act/event which creates a tangible effect or change of state in a patient. Semantic role: AGENT or FORCE.	the agent who/that X’s	that which the agent or force X does/initiates
8	dat dative	ü	The party which is the (intended) recipient of a verb of transference, transmission, or communication; the party at/to which a physically transferred entity, transmitted information, or a communicable entity is directed. Semantic role: RECIPIENT.	the recipient of X or of the act of X	that which the recipient X receives
9	ind inducive	u	The patient who undergoes the tangible effect, impact, or change of state of an act/event initiated/caused by that self-same party. Semantic role: AGENT+PATIENT.	the agent who/that X’s him-/her-/itself	that which the agent X does to him-/her-/itself

APPOSITIVE CASES			VX	DESCRIPTION OF CASE	Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix	Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix
10	pos possessive	ai		The party which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation.	the alienable / circumstantial possessor of X	that which X alienably or circumstantially possesses
11	prp proprietive	au		The party having alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever.	the owner of X; that to which/whom X belongs	that to whom/which X belongs; that which X owns
12	gen genitive	ei		The party which has inalienable (i.e., irremovable, non-severable) possession of or association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) bond.	the inalienable possessor of X	that which X inalienably possesses
13	att attributive	eu		The party which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective (see the affective case above) relationship with another noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature.	that to which/whom X is an attribute/characteristic	that which X has as an attribute/characteristic
14	pdc productive	ëu		The party which is the creator, author or originator of another noun.	the originator / author / or creator of X	that which X authored / created or originated
15	itp interpretative	ou		The party acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the noun by or through which another noun is subjectively considered, interpreted or described, e.g., Monet’s Paris, my baseball team (as spoken by a fan).	the party X by / thru which / whom something is subjectively interpreted / considered / described	that which is subject-ively considered, described or inter-preted by/thru X
16	ogn originative	oi		The party which is the literal or figurative source of another, or which is the native location, origin, or usual locative context for another.	the original or inherent location/source of X	that of which X is the original or inherent source/location
17	idp interdependent	iu		The party which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within its natural context	that with which, or to which, X has a complementary relationship	that which is the complementary relationship shared with X
18	par partitive	ui		Indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, a train(load) of refugees, twelve chairs.	that of which X is its apportioned or enumerated contents	that which is X’s appor-tioned or enumerated contents; an X-ful [of]

ASSOCIATIVE CASES		VX	DESCRIPTION OF CASE	Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix	Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix
19	apl applicative	ia / uä	The entity/act/event which constitutes the circumstantial, potentially one-time, temporary purpose of another entity/act/event. ‘for the (circumstantial/temporary/one-time) purpose of X’, ‘being used (temporarily/circumstantially) as X’	the purpose/function/use to which X is circumstantially put	that which has X as its circumstantial, temporary use/function/purpose
20	pur purposive	ie / uë	The entity/act/event which constitutes the inherent/innate/intrinsic purpose of another entity/act/event. ‘for the (dedicated) purpose/function of X’	the intrinsic / inherent / innate purpose of X	that which has X as its intrinsic, inherent, innate purpose
21	tra transmissive	io / üä	Renamed from the benefactive in Ithkuil 2011, this case indicates the party for which/whom an entity/act/event occurs or is transmitted, with the intention that the entity/act/event be beneficial/detrimental to the named party. ‘for (the benefit/detriment of) X’	that which/whom the intended benefit / detriment from X is for	that which is the intended benefit or detriment of (receiving/being impacted by) X
22	dfr deferential	iö / üë	The entity for whose sake, or out of deference/respect to whom, an act/event occurs. ‘for X’s sake’, ‘out of deference for X’, ‘out of respect for X’	the one for whose sake, or out of deference / respect to whom, X occurs	that which occurs or is done out of respect/deference, or for the sake of, X
23	crs contrastive	eë	The party for which something is substituted, or of which another party/entity takes its place; ‘instead of X’, ‘as a substitute for X’, ‘in place of X’	that which substitutes for X or takes X’s place	that for which X is substituted or whose place X takes
24	tsp transpositive	uö / öë	The party on whose behalf something is/occurs.	that on whose behalf X occurs/is	that which is (done) on X’s behalf
25	cmm commutative	uo / öä	The party in exchange for which, a reciprocal or complementary act/event occurs; e.g., He paid 100 dollars in exchange for the tickets.	that which is received in an act of exchange	that which is relinquished in an act of exchange
26	cmp comparative	ue / ië	The party being compared to another, translatable as ‘as compared to’, ‘as opposed to,’ ‘versus’; with verbs it translates as ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). Examples: She chose the red one as opposed to the others, Sam drives a van versus Joe, who prefers a truck, At the party, she danced while/whereas I ate.	that which is according to or pursuant to X; that which occurs as per, or in conformance to X	that, according to or pursuant to which, or as per or in conformance to which, X is/occurs
27	csd considerative	ua / iä	The entity according to which, another entity is, or an act/event occurs.	that which is according to X	that which X is according to

ADVERBIAL CASES		VX	DESCRIPTION OF CASE	Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix	Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix
28	fun functive	ao	Identifies a noun used to describe/characterize the manner in which an act/event/state occurs or exists, e.g., She dances gracefully; The boys ate with gusto; That clown is speaking nonsense; Father speaks with such fortitude.	the manner in which X is/occurs	that which is/occurs in a manner described or characterized by X
29	tfm transformative	aö	Identifies the outcome or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after undergoing some transformation. Examples: The house burned to ashes, Mother reached a state of tranquility, The clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank himself to death.	that into which, X transforms/changes	that which is/occurs as a result of the transformation of X
30	cla classificative	eo	identifies a noun as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, e.g., Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can you count by fives?, I will sort them by color. Also identifies the basis for recurring increments, e.g., month by month; day in, day out; box upon box, clown after clown.	the basis by which X is arranged, sorted, patterned or counted	that which is arranged, sorted, patterned, or counted by/via X
31	rsl resultative	eö	Identifies a result/consequence, translatable as ‘resulting in X’, ‘with X as a consequence’, etc.	the result / consequence of which, X occurs/is	that which results from or is a consequence of X
32	csm consumptive	oë	Identifies the entity consumed or used as a resource as a result of, or as a concurrent part of a process, e.g., She cooks with tomatoes, The clown fed her an apple, He reads by candle(light).	that by which X is consumed or used up	that which is consumed in the process of X
33	con concessive	öe	identifies a noun or phrase which gives rise to an implicitly expected result which does not occur. This translates in many ways such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples: In spite of his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), they are welcome, Although a foreigner, we will let him in.	that, in spite of or regardless of which, X occurs/is	that which is/occurs in spite of or regardless of X
34	avr aversive	oe	Identifies a source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in avoidance of.’ With verbs, it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples: She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled by night to avoid the sun. Hide the children, lest the clowns find them.	that, in aversion to which, X occurs/is	that which is/occurs in avoidance or fear of X
35	cvs conversive	öa	Identifies an exception. When the exception is to a hypothetical situation, it translates as ‘unless’ in verbal phrases, and ‘without’ for nouns, e.g., Without peace, this society is doomed; We’ll be safe unless the clowns find us. If applied to a real or actual situation, it translates as ‘except (for)’, ‘but for,’ ‘but (not), ‘excluding’, ‘if not for,’ ‘if it wasn’t for,’ ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ If not for the rain, we would have had a good time; She loves everybody except clowns; All pets are vermin, excluding dogs; He eats almost anything but (not) spinach.	that, if not for which, or but for which, or except for which, X (would) occur(s)	that which would be/occur but for, or if not for, or except for X
36	sit situative	oa	Identifies a noun as the background context for a clause without implying any direct causative relationship between the background context and the associated or consequent act/state/event. It translates in many ways, e.g., Because of war, our planet will never be able to join the Federation; Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption of our children; With my plan, we will defeat the enemy. Other translations include: ‘inasmuch as / insofar as / to the extent that / taking X into account / in view of the fact that / given that / considering’.	that, because of which, or given which, X occurs/is	that which is/occurs because of, on account of, or given, X

RELATIONAL CASES		VX	DESCRIPTION OF CASE	Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix	Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix
37	prn pertinential	a	Identifies the general referent of another formative, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’	that which X is about or to which X pertains or is in regard to	that which pertains to X or which is about or in regard to X
38	dsp descriptive	ä	Identifies a formative as describing another formative in an adjectival manner, translatable as ‘characterized/describable as being like X; characterized/describable as having the quality/qualities of X’	that which is characterized or describable by/as X	that which character-izes or functions as a description for X
39	cor correlative	e	Indicates an abstract general relationship, association, or conjunction between one formative and another, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association with,’ e.g., career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, Our next topic is sex and/in art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex).	that which X is associated/relative to or in relation to	that which is associated with or relative to X
40	cps compositive	i	identifies a noun as being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.	that of which X is made/composed or consists of	that which consists of, is made of, or is composed of X
41	com comitative	ëi	Identifies a formative that accompanies another, translatable as ‘(along) with’. When used with parallel or complementary valence, signifies that the formative is being used in the same (or a complementary) way or is undergoing the same (or a complementary) activity as the other formative it is associated with (i.e., the meaning of the conjunctive case in Ithkuil 2011).	that which accompanies X	that which X accompanies
42	utl utilitative	ö	Identifies a formative in the process of being used while some other activity or state is in progress. It does not imply the INSTRUMENT of an act as does the instrumental case. Examples: the gun-wielding man, the umbrella-toting pedestrian, a girl with backpack (on).	that which circumstantially uses/utilizes X	that which is used or utilized circumstantially by X
43	prd predicative	o	Identifies the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, success supported by corruption.	that upon which X relies or is based upon	that which relies on or is based upon X
44	rlt relative	u	Identifies a formative (or case-frame) as constituting a relative clause associated with the preceding formative (or whatever formative is indicated by the DCD affix as being the head of the relative clause). NOTE: a lone formative in relative case not functioning as an external head of a relative clause need not be in framed Relation (See Sec.5.4 of this document).	that which identifies or distinguishes X from other parties	the party identified by or distinguishable by X

AFFINITIVE CASES		VX	DESCRIPTION OF CASE	Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix	Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix
45	act activative	ai	Identifies the experiencer of a modal state, such as obligation, necessity, desire, hope, expectation, wishing, being able to, etc. functioning as the “subject” of a modal(ized) verb governing a hypothetical state (i.e., what is wanted, needed, expected, able to be done, etc.)	the one who experiences a modal state of X	The modal state which X experiences
46	asi assimilative	au	Identifies a formative used as a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to another formative; translatable as ‘as/like’ meaning ‘as if (it were) X’ in the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another that it is not, e.g., She sings like a bird, ; Treat her as/like a princess (= as if she were a princess), He talks like a child (even though he’s an adult).	that which/who is/does like or as (it were) X	that, as if it were which, X is/ occurs
47	ess essive	ei	Identifies the role or name by which an entity is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as/like’ in the sense of naming or reference to the an entity’s functional identity, e.g., They called him a clown, The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider you our only hope, Treat her as/like a princess (because she is one), He talks like a child (because he is a child)..	that whose role is X, or what/who is named (as) X	that, in whose role/name, X is/occurs
48	trm terminative	eu	Identifies a noun as being the goal of an act/event, e.g., We seek a new planet; a desire to see his homeland; an academy for (making) champions	X’s goal; what X pursues as a goal	the goal X
49	sel selective	ëu	Identifies a contextually recurring time-period, as well as a string of recurring entities, e.g., I visit him every three days; Each year, I travel to the Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays; ...every third book; ...every green one.	the recurring entity/period on/for/with which X occurs	that which is/occurs on a recurrent schedule or iteration X
50	cfm conformative	ou	The entity pursuant to which, as per which, or in conformance with which, another entity is, or an act/event occurs.	that which is pursuant to, as per, or in conformance with X	that which X is pursuant to or in conformance with
51	dep dependent	oi	identifies as formative as being the basis of a dependency phrase on which another formative or phrase acts as the contingency, translatable as ‘...if the circumstances regarding X are such to allow/warrant it’ where the final “it” refers to the original contingency noun/phrase whose existence/occurrence is (at least in part) determined by or contingent upon the dependency phrase. The exact nature of the dependency can be specified using the DPC affix.	that upon which the existence/occurrence of X depends	that whose existence or occurrence depends on X
52	voc vocative	ui	Signifies a noun being used in direct address.	—	—

SPATIO-TEMPORAL I			VX	DESCRIPTION OF CASE	Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix	Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix
53	loc locative	ia / uä		entity identified as the location where something is situated or occurs; ‘at / in / on / by X’	where X occurs/is (situated); X’s location	that which is located, situated, or occurring at X
54	atd attendant	ie / uë		entity in whose presence something is/occurs and which/who is thereby involved in some peripheral manner (e.g., as a witness, as a party affected or stimulated to action, etc.)	that in whose presence which, X is/occurs	that which is situated or occurring in X’s presence
55	all allative	io / üä		entity toward which another entity is moving/approaching	where X is headed/going toward	that which is headed toward X
56	abl ablative	iö / üë		entity away from which another entity is moving/receding	where X is coming from or moving away from	that which is coming from or moving away from X
57	ori orientative	eë		entity (often a body part or sub-component) which serves as the “face” or surface or “front” or “head” of an entity in terms of external communication or interaction, or which serves as the forward “end” of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion in terms of directional movement.	that which serves as X’s orientational interface	that which is oriented, facing in the direction designated by X
58	irl interrelative	uö / öë		signifies the directional/temporal orientation or position of an entity relative to another, i.e., a noun relative to whose position in space or time another noun is being described for purposes of spatial/temporal orientation, e.g., He turned his back on me, It lies just west of the house, Tell me when the parade starts relative to my arrival.	the place/time relative to which, X is/occurs	that which occurs relative to the place/time designated by X
59	inv intrative	uo / öä		Identifies a noun as being the spatio-temporal boundary point of a span or volume of space or a period of time, i.e, either the starting point or the ending point of a span of time or space. English translations include: ‘as of X’ / ‘since X’ /‘until X’; for spatial contexts, translates as “between there and here” / “between here and there”)\	the place/time since/until/between which, X is/occurs	that which occurs since, until, or between the place(s)/time(s) designated by X
60	nav navigative	ua / iä		entity whose literal or metaphorically inferred long axis serves as the direction of another entity’s path, course, arc, or trajectory of translative motion	that which serves as X’s directional trajectory, path or way	that which is traveling along the directional trajectory, path or way designated by X

SPATIO-TEMPORAL II		VX	DESCRIPTION OF CASE	Meaning of Case-Accessor Affix	Meaning of Inverse Accessor Affix
61	cnr concursive	ao	indicates a “temporal locative” meaning ‘at or during the time of X’, i.e., the point or stretch in time at or during which an entity or an act/event exists or occurs.	when X is/occurs	that which is/occurs at a certain time X
62	ass assessive	aö	Specifies the increment of space or time or unit by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, e.g., He charges by the minute. It travels at 90 kilometers per hour. He earns $25 per book.	the spatiial, temporal, or unit basis for the ratio by which X is measured, alloted, etc.	that which is measured via a ratio based on a spatial, temporal, or unit increment X.
63	per periodic	eo	identifies the span of time / time frame at some point(s) during which, separate events, repetitions, or durationally segmented acts or states take place. Examples would be He wrote the novel in/over six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.	the time period or event during which X occurs	that which is/occurs during or within a time period X
64	pro prolapsive	eö	signifies the duration of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts, e.g., He prayed through lunch, It rained all night, It took three days for the fever to break, She sang for an hour.	(the time period or event constituting) the duration of X	that which lasts, endures, or takes up an amount of time X
65	pcv precursive	oë	Identifies an entity acting as a point in time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs, e.g., ‘this city before the war’, ‘a presentation preceding the banquet’.	the act/event or point in time, prior to which, X occurs	the act/event or point in time which is/occurs prior to X
66	pcr postcursive	öe	Identifies an entity acting as a point in time after which, following which, subsequent to which, an act, state, or event occurs, e.g., ‘this city after the war’, ‘a presentation following the banquet’, ‘It’s been a long time since I danced’.	the act/event or time, after/following which or subsequent to which, X occurs	the act/event or time which is/occurs after or following or subsequent to X
67	elp elapsive	oe	identifies the amount of time that has passed or is expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of the act, condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago’ or ‘...from now’. Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going back three generations, women could not even vote; Four years from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man. The past vs. future distinction is determined from context, any aspectual morphology, or may be specified with the new TPL affix.	the amount of elapsed time between X and a past or future act/event/time	the act/event/state which occurs X amount of elapsed time between then and the contextual present.
68	plm prolimitive	oa	Signifies the spatio-temporal boundary point of a span of time or space during which or within which something is expected to or must occur or be situated. Equivalent to English phrases: by the end of X / within the period ending in X / within the period ending with X / before X is over / before X is up / inside of (the period signified by) X	the time/event by which time X is/occurs	the act/event or point in time which is/occurs by the time of X

7.6.1 The Phonological Structure of Case-Accessor, Inverse Case-Accessor, and Case-Stacking Affixes

The phonological structure of these affixes is as follows: The V_X portion of the affix is the standard four vowel-form series of regular V_XC_S affixes. There are two separate C_S increments for each of the seven types of affix (Types-1, -2, and -3 Case-Accessor, Types-1, -2, and -3 Inverse Case-Accessor, and Case-Stacking Affix), the first C_S increment being used for Cases 1 through 36, while the second C_S increment is used for Cases 37 through 68.

V_X for the first 36 cases is the first four standard-vowel form series (i.e., the same as their corresponding V_C case-affixes). Cases 37-68 utilize the same four vowel-form series (i.e., no glottal-stop is added to the V_X increment), the distinction from the first 36 cases being indicated by their different C_S increment. This structure allows case-accessor and case-stacking affixes to appear in Slot V or Slot VII or in affixual adjuncts. See Sec. 5.7 as to how using the case-stacking affix on unframed verbal formatives can function as a substitute for case-frames.

	Case-Accessor Affix						Inverse Case-Accessor Affix						Case-Stacking Affix
	Type-1		Type-2		Type-3		Type-1		Type-2		Type-3
	VX = Series No.	CS =	VX = Series No.	CS =	VX = Series No.	CS =	VX = Series No.	CS =	VX = Series No.	CS =	VX = Series No.	CS =	VX = Series No.	CS =
Cases 1 thru 9	1	sw	1	zw	1	čw	1	šw	1	žw	1	jw	1	lw
Cases 10 thru 18	2		2		2		2		2		2		2
Cases 19 thru 27	3		3		3		3		3		3		3
Cases 28 thru 36	4		4		4		4		4		4		4
Cases 37 thru 44 *	1	sy	1	zy	1	čy	1	šy	1	žy	1	jy	1	ly
Cases 45 thru 52 *	2		2		2		2		2		2		2
Cases 53 thru 60 *	3		3		3		3		3		3		3
Cases 61 thru 68 *	4		4		4		4		4		4		4

* For Cases 37 through 68: since these four case-groups each contain only eight cases rather than nine and Vowel-Form No. 8 (the ü-tier) for each group is not used, similarly the eighth tier of vowel-forms are not used for these case-accessor or case-stacking affixes.

7.6.2 Examples of Type-1 and Type-2 Case-Assessor Affixes in Use

Pţödá lu psoloswëi.

‘seek’-obj/dyn-prx-obs 1m/neu-ind ‘cause.to.happen’-csv/dyn-[default C_A]-ACCESSOR:ERG₁-stm

‘What I’m seeking is the party who has done this.’

Pţödá lu psolozwëi.

‘seek’-obj/dyn-prx-obs 1m/neu-ind ‘cause.to.happen’-csv/dyn-[default C_A]-ACCESSOR:ERG₂-stm

‘What I’m seeking is the perpetrator.’

Äţtulalzói la’i welošwa kšile.

cpt-‘know’-dyn-[default C_A]- dsd₁/1-pot 1m/neu-act [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child’-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:ERG₁-thm ‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-abs

‘I want to know what the child did to the clown.’

Malalzói la’i erdwilařstëuswü.

‘talk’-[default C_A]-dsd₁/1-pot 1m/neu-act stem2/cpt-‘building’-obj-[default C_A]-lcm₁/1-ACCESSOR:PDC₁-dat

‘I want to talk to the designer of the building.’

Malalzói la’i erdwilařstëuzwü.

‘talk’-[default C_A]-dsd₁/1-pot 1m/neu-act stem2/cpt-‘building’-obj-[default C_A]-lcm₁/1-ACCESSOR:PDC₂-dat

‘I want to talk to the architect of the building.’

Malalzói la’i erdwili’sya.

‘talk’-[default C_A]-dsd₁/1-pot 1m/neu-act stem2/cpt-‘building’-obj-[default C_A]-ACCESSOR:CPS₁-prn

‘I want to talk about what the building is made out of.’

Malalzói la’i erdwili’zya.

‘talk’-[default C_A]-dsd₁/1-pot 1m/neu-act stem2/cpt-‘building’-obj-[default C_A]-ACCESSOR:CPS₂-prn

‘I want to talk about the building’s construction materials.’

Kšilá welëisya.

‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-obs [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child’-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:COM₁-thm

‘The one whom the child is with is a clown.’

Kšilá welëizya.

‘clown’-obj-[default C_A]-obs [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child’-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:COM₂-thm

‘The child’s chaperone is a clown.’

7.6.3 Type-3 Case-Assessor & Inverse Case-Assessor Affixes

Use these to modify an adjacent V_XC_S; the Type-3 accessor modifies the adjacent affix so that it refers to an appropriate participant to the formative where the nature of participation is indicated by the particular case of the accessor affix. The following are examples comparing a Type-3 case-accessor with its inverse counterpart:

wupsovļäčwa [default C_A]-stem3/prc-‘event’-ple/7-ACCESSOR:INS₃ ‘that by which a pleasant event occurs’

wupsovļäjwa [default C_A]-stem3/prc-‘event’-ple/7-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:INS₃ ‘what a pleasant event is used for’

weproptočwa [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘upward.motion’-‘dng₁/7-ACCESSOR:ERG₃ ‘the one who dangerously pushes (it) upward’

weproptojwa [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘upward.motion’-‘dng₁/7-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:ERG₃ ‘that which one dangerously pushes upward’

wufjopčiečwa [default C_A]-stem3/prc-‘interfere’-aut₁/7-ACCESSOR:PUR₃ ‘the purpose for using one’s authority to interfere’

wufjopčiejwa [default C_A]-stem3/prc-‘interfere’-aut₁/7-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:PUR₃ ‘what using one’s authority to interfere is for’

weläxţičya [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child’-cnc₂/2-ACCESSOR:TRM₃ ‘the selfish child’s goal’ / ‘what the selfish child is after’

weläxţijya [default C_A]-stem2/prc-‘child’-cnc₂/2-INVERSE.ACCESSOR:TRM₃ ‘the goal being a selfish child’ / ‘in pursuit/hope of a selfish child’

NOTE: Whenever one uses a Type-3 affix, whether a standard V_XC_S affix or a Type-3 case-accessor or Type-3 inverse case-accessor affix, it should be remembered that the Type-3 affix qualifies the immediately preceding affix only (or following affix if there are only two affixes in that particular Slot), the Type-3 affix does not qualify the formative as a whole. If the use of the Type-3 affix results in semantic ambiguity or incoherence, do not use a Type-3 affix.

7.6.4 Examples of Case-Stacking Affixes

Hmažfie-egulirkwá ru yamţröalwa’o.

prx/concatenated:prc-‘healthy.state’-pur-parent:stem.2-‘ambulate’-dyn-cyc₁/4-obs     1m/ben-ind     prx-prc-‘rain’-CVS-cnr
‘I jog every day except during the rain.’

Case-stacking allows for an alternative to case-frames. For example, examine the following sentence which uses a relative case-frame:

Ẓulá   mu   eňtyarka   bzmare’na äšgú’layu ro. 
‘see’-dyn-[default C_A]-obs     ma/neu-ind stem2-prc-‘written.page’-msc/coa-thm ‘rat’- g-tpf₁/3-prn cpt-‘capture’-dyn/FRAMED-[default C_A]-rtr-RLT  1m/ben-erg
‘S/he looks at the book about the rats I captured.’

Now compare the above sentence to the following which uses a relative case-stacking affix in lieu of a case-frame:

Ẓulá   mu   eňtyarka   bzmarulye’na äšgulayâ ro. 
‘see’-dyn-[default C_A]-obs     ma/neu-ind stem2-prc-‘written.page’-msc/coa-thm ‘rat’-g-rlt-tpf₁/3-RLT -prn cpt-‘capture’-dyn-[default C_A]-rtr-rec  1m/ben-erg
‘S/he looks at the book about the rats I captured.’

To understand more clearly how the ordering of the formatives, the placement of the case-stacking affix, and the use of the TPF affix serves to give the above sentence its specific meaning, compare it to the following sentence with its subtlely different meaning:

Ẓulá   mu   eňtyarka  äšgú’laya ro bzmare. 
‘see’-dyn-[default C_A]-obs     ma/neu-ind stem2-prc-‘written.page’-msc/coa-thm cpt-‘capture’-dyn/framed-[default C_A]-rtr-prn  1m/ben-erg prc-‘rat’-g-abs
‘S/he looks at the book about me having captured the rats.’

7.7 Using Slot II as a “Short-Cut” for Three Common Affixes

Formatives whose Slot I value is either [zero], h-, or hw- (i.e., the formative does not contain a Slot IV/VI a+C_A shortcut as per Sec. 3.10), have the option of using their Slot II vowel-form to show one of three common V_XC_S affixes: NEG₁/4, DCD₁/4, or DCD₁/5. (See the Affixes document for the meaning of these three affixes.) Note that if one of these three optional Affix Shortcuts is used, this affix has scope over the stem, its C_A complex, and any other V_XC_S affixes within the formative (i.e., it operates as if it were the last affix in Slot VII). The Slot II vowel-form short-cuts for these three affixes are shown in the table below.

Slot II V_V Values if Slot I is [zero], h-, or hw- (i.e., the formative does not contain a Slot IV/VI a+C_A shortcut)

Stem	Version	VV	VV + Optional Affix Shortcuts
		—	NEG/4	DCD/4	DCD/5
Stem 1	PRC	(a)	ai	ia / uä	ao
	CPT	ä	au	ie / uë	aö
Stem 2	PRC	e	ei	io / üä	eo
	CPT	i	eu	iö / üë	eö
Stem 3	PRC	u	ui	ua / iä	oa
	CPT	ü	iu	ue / ië	öa
Stem 0 *	PRC	o	oi	uo / öä	oe
	CPT	ö	ou	uö / öë	öe

Introduction	4 Case Morphology	8 Adjuncts	12 The Writing System
1 Phonology	5 Verb Morphology	9 Referentials	13 Numbers
2 Morpho-Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	10 Special Constructions	14 The Lexicon
3 Basic Morphology	7 Affixes	11 Syntax	Appendices